JAN  1  7  1917   - 
FEB  9fi  1917 

OCT  2  8  »T7 


\ 


HIGHLAND  SHEEP  AT  HOME 


THE  PRESENTATION  of  this  photo-engraving  as  a  frontis- 
piece is  meant  to  be  a  tribute  to  the  talent  of  Mr.  Chas. 
Reid,  of  Wishaw,  Scotland,  whose  work  in  this  direction  has 
shown  the  degree  to  which  animal  photography  may  be  made  both 
artistic  and  instructive.  The  sustained  merit  of  the  work  which 
he  had  done  has  pointed  the  way  to  gratifying  results,  and  the 
outcome  has  just  recently  made  it  possible  to  illustrate  a  book  of 
this  kind  with  all  the  types  and  qualities  shown  as  they  are, 
through  the  agency  of  photographs  made  by  him  and  such  artists 
as  Schreiber  of  Philadelphia,  Hills  of  Ohio,  and  Brown  cf  Sect- 
land.  In  addition  to  the  clearness  of  detail  in  this  reproduction 
of  some  Highland  sheep,  note  the  beauty  of  the  mountain  stream 
with  the  old  water  wheel  at  the  side  of  it,  the  naturalness  of  the 
cheep,  the  watchful  pose  of  the  dog,  guardlike  in  position,  with 
the  sLepherds  resting  at  the  foot  of  the  trees  and  all  in  the  fore- 
ground of  the  rolling  hills  suggested  beyond. 


JUDGING  LIVE  STOCK 


By  JOHN  A.   CRAIG 

PROPRIETOR,  OAKMORE  FARM,  SAN  ANTONIO,  TEXAS 


FORMERLY 

EDITOR  CANADIAN  LIVE  STOCK  JOURNAL 

PROFESSOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

PROFESSOR  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  AND  VICE  DIRECTOR 

IOWA  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

DEAN  AND  DIRECTOR  TEXAS  AGRICULTURAL  AND 

MECHANICAL  COLLEGE 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 
1908 


COPYRIGHTED  1901 

BY 

JOHN  A.  CRAIG 


SET  UP  AND  ELECTROTYPED,  JANUARY  1901 
REPRINTED,  SECOND  EDITION,  MARCH,  1901 
REPRINTED,  THIRD  EDITION,  APRIL,  1901 
REPRINTED,  FOURTH  EDITION,  JANUARY,  1902 
REPRINTED,  FIFTH  EDITION,  OCTOBER,  1902 
REPRINTED,  SIXTH  EDITION,  AUGUST,^  1904 
REPRINTED,  SEVENTH  EDITION,  FEBRUARY,  1905 
REPRINTED,  EIGHTH  EDITION,  FEBRUARY,  1906 
REPRINTED,  NINTH  EDITION,  JANUARY,  1907 
REPRINTED,  TENTH  EDITION,  JANUARY,  1908 
REPRINTED,  ELEVENTH  EDITION,  APRIL,  1908 


THE  KENYON  PRINTING  &  MFG.  CO. 

DES  MOINES,    IOWA 


Beauty  is  boug-ht  by 
judgment  of  the  eye. 
— Shakespeare. 


IN  JUDGING  LIVE  STOCK   there  are  two  faculties  which 
seem   to   require   special    development  —  observation    and 
judgment. 

The  eye  must  see  quickly  and  accurately,  so  that  there  may 
be  no  mistake  in  the  observations  which  are  to  form  the  basis  for 
a  conclusion.  While  this  is  to  a  considerable  extent  dependent 
on  being  informed  on  what  to  look, for,  yet  no  amount  of  informa- 
tion will  supply  keen  powers  of  observa- 
tion, which  in  addition,  must  be  kept  in 
practice  by  continuous  use.  The  student 
should  never  be  dilatory  in  this,  for  once 
allow  it  to  be  said  that  he  sees  a  thing  which  he  does  not,  the 
foundation  for  candid  criticism  is  being  built  on  sand.  It  is  bettei 
to  be  "  simpler  than  the  infancy  of  truth  "  and  completely  candid 
with  one's  observations  than  to  be  mthe  least  deceptive  or  dilatory 
in  recording  them. 

Not  only  should  one  be  quick  to  see  things  as  they  really  are 
but  there  should  be  as  much  dispatch  in  detecting  deviations  from 
the  correct  standard.  There  is  much 
difficulty  in  this  for  a  standard  only  forms 
itself  clearly  in  one's  mind  after  the  re- 
sults of  experience,  observation  and  study 
have  merged  together  into  a  clearly  de- 
fined ideal.  To  formulate  an  ideal  is 


What,  then,  makes  a  dog- 
beautiful?  The  possession 
of  the  excellence  of  a  dog-. 
And  what  makes  a  horse 
beautiful?  The  possession 
of  the  excellence  of  a  horse. 
What,  then,  makes  a  man 
beautiful  ?  Is  it  not  the  po- 
session  of  the  excellence  of 
a  man  ?  —  Epictetus, 


absolutely  essential  and  in  doing  this  it  is  imperative  to  familiarize 
one's  self  with  the  good  qualities  of  animal  life,  correct  conform- 
ation and  the  highest  types,  so  that  the  least  variation  from  these 
at  once  attracts  the  attention.  When  a 
distinct  ideal,  based  on  the  best  types 
and  their  highest  qualities  has  been 
formed  in  the  mind,  and  this  is  sup- 
ported by  a  discriminating  eye,  it  is  but  another  step  to  render  a 
correct  judgment. 


No  pessimist  ever  made 
much  in  the  study  of  life  his- 
tories of  animals.  The  stu- 
dent of  such  had  better  be  an 
optimist  out  and  out. — Samuel 
Lockwood. 


310810 


But  do  thou,  I  say,  simply 
and  fully,  choose  the  better 
and  hold  to  it.  But  that  which 
is  useful  is  the  better.  —  An- 
toninus. 


In  judging  the  market  classes  of  stock  the  demands  of  the 
market  should  have  a  strong  influence  in  the  establishment  of 
standards  and  in  the  judging  of  breeding 
classes  the  official  scales  of  points,  when 
such  exist,  should  be  relied  upon  chiefly  as 
a  guide,  and  when  these  are  not  officially 
published  an  effort  should  be  made  to  become  informed  regarding 
the  understanding  that  exists  among  the  breeders.  While  thes  ? 
standards  are  so  wide  in  scope  as  to  include  many  minor  points 
yet  it  will  be  noticeable  that  the,  essential  features  are  given  the 
greatest  prominence  and  they  are  usually  based  on  the  utility  oi 
the  animal  for  its  purpose.  This  does  not  mean  lhat  the  minor 
features  should  be  slighted,  for  the  degree 

No  detail  is  too  small  to  be 

studied  for  truth.  of  excellence  in  domestic  animals  is  now 
evenson'     so  high  and  the  competition  so  keen  that 


it  is  most  frequently  on  some  of  these  minor  details  that  their 
rank  in  the  show  ring  is  determined. 

In  show  ring  judging,  after  the  inspection  is  completed,  a  draft 
or  "  short  leet "  is  made  of  the  likely  winners  of  place  from  the 
rest  of  the  competitors.  Up  to  this  time  the  judging  has  been  the 
detection  of  faults  and  deviations  from  the  standard  required,  but 
now  the  work  is  more  of  the  nature  of  comparative  judging,  in 
which  the  points  of  the  animals  considered  worthy  of  prizes  are 
compared  to  determine  their  rank.  It 
greatly  aids  dispatch  and  tends  to  more 


Reverence    the    faculty 
which    produces    opinion.— 

Antonims-  exactness  to  make  such  a  draft  when 


there  are  five  or  more  animals  in  the  class.  It  also  materially 
assists  the  examiner  in  keeping  in  mind  the  qualities  which  he  musi 
compare.  Carefulness  at.  this  point  will  do  much  towards  the 
formation  of  a  decision,  which  may  be  afterv/ards  maintained 
with  justice. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I— JUDGING  HORSES. 

I.       THE   ANATOMY   A    BASIS    OF    STUDY 5 

The  Bones  as  Levers;  Actions  of  the  Muscles;  Function 
of  the  Nervous  System;  Temperaments. 


II.      JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES, 


General  Examination. — Form;  Propelling  Power  Re- 
sides in  Hindquarters;  Three  Classes  of  Light  Horses; 
The  Coach  or  Carriage  Horse;  Analysis  of  Style;  The 
Trotter  or  Roadster;  The  Pacer  as  a  Roadster;  The 
Saddle  Horse;  Quality;  Durability  Associated  with 
Quality;  Action,  The  Walk;  Observing  Straightness 
of  the  walk;  Manner  of  Noting  Levelness;  The  Higli 
Stepper  in  Action;  The  Carriage  Horse;  Straight  and 
Regular  Action;  The  Driver's  Sensation  of  Action; 
The  Trotter;  The  Pacing  Gait. 

Structural  Examination. — Head;  Nostrils;  Eyes;  Ears; 
Jaw  Bones;  Neck;  Shoulders;  Fore  Legs;  Arms; 
Elbows;  Fore  Arms;  Knees;  Cannons;  Pasterns; 
Feet;  Ribs;  Back;  Loin;  Croup;  Thighs;  Quarters; 
Hind  Legs;  Hocks;  Hind  Cannons;  Hind  Pasterns; 
Hind  Feet;  Scale  of  Points  for  Light  Horses. 

III.  JUDGING     HEAVY     HORSES 32 

Consideration  of  Condition. 

General  Examination. — Form;    Advantage  ol  Weight; 
Market  Value  of  Weight;   Quality  with  Substance  Nea- 
essary  for  Durability;  Action;  Trotting  Action. 
Structural      Examination. — Head;      Neck;       Shoulder; 
Chest;    Arm;    Fore   Leg;    Knees;    Fetlocks;    Pasterns; 
Feet;    Body;    Loin;    Croup;   Hock;    Scale  of  Points  for 
Heavy  Horses. 

IV.  JUDGING   HORSES  IN   THE   BREEDING   CLASSES 44 

Sex  Characteristics;  Differences  in  Disposition;  Differ- 
ences in  form;  Variation  in  Features;  Relation  of  Sex 
Characteristics  to  Sterility;  Relation  of  Sex  Character- 
istics to  Prepotency;  The  Stallion  Classes;  Importance 
of  Correct  Conformation;  Hereditary  Diseases;  The 
Mare  Classes;  Colts  and  Fillies. 

V.      ESTIMATING    THE    AGE    OF    HORSES    BY    THEIR    TEETH 50 

Appearance  of  Incisors;  Order  of  Appearance  of 
Incisors;  Disappearance  of  the  Tables. 


CONTENTS — CONTINUED 
VI.       EXAMINATION    FOR    UNSOUNDNESS 52 

A  Blemish  Different  from  Unsoundness;  Decayed  and 
Worn  Teeth;  Discharges  from  the  Nostrils;  Defective 
Hearing;  Sweenied  Shoulders;  Capped  Elbows;  Splints; 
Ringbones;  Sidebones;  Quarter  Cracks  and  Sand 
Cracks;  Corns;  Thrush  and  Scratches;  Locating  Lame- 
ness; Thoroughpin;  Curb;  Bone  Spavin;  Bog  Spavin; 
Unsound  in  Wind;  Detection  of  Stable  Vices. 

V!T.       OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    FOR    HORSES 58 

Standard  for  Trotting  and  Pacing  Horses;  Shetland 
Pony  Scale  of  Points. 

CHAPTER  II— JUDGING  CATTLE. 
Method  of  Examination   63 

I       JUDGING    BEEF    CATTLE 63 

Method  of  Handling;  Store  Steer;  Form  of  the  Feeder; 
Quality;  Inferences  from  Good  Handling;  Features  of 
the  Head;  Neck;  Chest;  Ribs;  Hips;  Judging  Fat 
Steers;  Handling;  Condition;  Relation  of  Parts;  Value 
of  Cuts;  Scale  of  Points  for  Beef  Steer. 

II.       JUDGING    BEEF    STOCK    FOR   BREEDING    PURPOSES 73 

Judging  Beef  Bulls;  Judging  Beef  Cows;  Judging 
Young  Beef  Stock. 

III.       JUDGING   DAIRY    CATTLE 76 

Dairy  Cow's  Function;  Making  of  Milk;  Function  of 
the  Blood;  Function  of  the  Udder;  Nervous  System; 
The  Dairy  Form;  Skin;  Hair;  Bone;  Head;  Neck; 
Hind  Quarters;  Hips;  Thi^h;  Escutcheon;  Udder; 
Teats;  Milk  Veins;  Scale  of  Points  for  Dairy  Cow. 

IV.       JUDGING    DAIRY    BULLS     88 

Purity  of  Breeding;  Uniformity  of  Breeding;  Pedigree 
Based  on  Performance;  Qualities  Associated  with 
Individuality;  Judging  Calves. 

V.       OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOR    CATTLE 90 

Aberdeen  Angus;  Devon;  Red  Polled;  Holstein- 
Friesian;  Jersey;  Guernsey;  Dutch  Belted;  Ayrshire. 

CHAPTER  III— JUDGING  SHEEP. 

Method  of  Examining  Sheep;  Deception  Due  to  Trim- 
ming; Estimating  Age  by  the  Teeth 107 

I.       JUDGING    SHEEP   FOR    MUTTON    AND   WOOL 100 

Feeding  Type  that  Gives  the  Best  Gains;  Feeding  Type 
Bringing  Most  at  Maturity;  Type  Desired  by  the  Butch- 
er; Quality;  The  Importance  of  Condition;  Judging 
Condition;  Importance  of  Dressed  Weight;  Considera- 
tion of  the  Consumer;  Qualities  of  the  Fleece;  Examin- 
ing the  Fleece;  Quantity  of  Fleece;  Density;  Length 


CONTEXTS — CONTINUED 

of  Staple;  Classification  of  Wool;  Quality  of  Fleece; 
Softness;  Commercial  Grades;  Crimp;  Soundness; 
Condition;  Purity;  Domestic  Wool;  Territory  Wool; 
Blanket  Wool;  Lustre;  Brightness;  Yolk;  Scale  of 
Points  for  Fina  Wooled  Sheep;  Scale  of  Points  for  Fat 
Sheep. 

II.      JUDGING    SHEEP   FOR   BREEDING    PURPOSES 127 

Formation  of  Types;  Value  of  Breed  Type;  The  Ram; 
The  Ewe;  Judging  Lambs  and  Flocks. 

III.       OFFICIAL    STANDARD    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOR    SHEEP 131 

Southdown;  Shropshire;  Hampshire;  Suffolk;  Oxford; 
Cotswold;  Wensleydale;  Dorset  Horn;  Cheviot;  De- 
laine, Spanish  Merino;  Black  Top  Spanish  Merino; 
Tunis. 

CHAPTER  IV— JUDGING  SWINE. 

I.      JUDGING   FAT    HOGS 145 

Form;     Quality;     Head;     Eyes;     Ears;  Jowl;     Neck; 

Shoulder;     Front    Legs;     Chest;     Sides;  Back;     Loin; 

Hips;  Rump;  Hams;  Hind  Legs;  Scale  of  Points  for 
Fat  Hogs. 

II.       JUDGING  BACON   HOGS 152 

Condition;  Form;  Weight;  Shoulder;  Side;  Scale  of 
Points  for  Bacon  Hogs. 

III.      JUDGING  SWINE  FOR  BREEDING  PURPOSES 156 

The  Boar;   The  Sow. 

IV.       OFFICIAL    STANDARD   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE 158 

Berkshire;  Poland  China;  Essex;  Chester  White; 
Duroc  Jersey;  Victoria;  Cheshire,  Large  White  York- 
shire; Middle  White  Yorkshire;  Small  White  Yorkshire; 
Suffolks;  Tarn  worth;  Thin-Rind. 


CHAPTER  I. 

JUDGING  HORSES. 

To  furnisla  reasons  for  many  of  the  points  that  will  be 
submitted  in  discussing  the  types  of  horses,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  consider  the  horse  as  a  mechanism  in  which  the  bones 
are  levers,  the  muscles  the  source  of  power  and  the  nervous 
system  the  stimulator  of  the  muscles. 

I.      THE   ANATOMY   A   BASIS   OF  STUDY. 

I.  The  Bones  as  Levers.  The  three  classes  of  levers 
are  all  represented  in  the  anatomy  of  the  horse.  The  first 
class  may  be  fittingly  illustrated  by  a  pair  of  scissors;  the 
power  is  applied  at  the  holes  for  the  fingers,  the  fulcrum  is 
in  the  center  where  the  blades  are  united  and  the  applica- 
tion of  the  power  is  at  the  points.  This  is  the  strongest 
form  of  leverage  and  it  is  employed  in  the  skeleton  of  the 
horse  by  the  parts  involved  in  the  extension  of  the  limbs. 

The  lever  of  the  second  class  may  be  said  to  be  clearly 
represented  by  a  wheelbarrow.  The  power  is  applied  at 
the  handle,  the  weight  is  in  the  center  and  the  application 
of  the  power  is  at  the  wheel.  This  leverage  in  the  horse 
enables  it  to  sleep  standing  or  to  stand  without  feeling  much 
strain.  It  is  in  action  in  such  parts  as  that  in  the  region  of 
the  humerus. 

The  leverage  of  the  third  class  is  represented  by  a  pair  of 
sheep  shears.  The  power  is  applied  at  the  center,  the  ful- 
crum is  at  one  end  and  the  application  of  the  power  is  at  the 
other.  This  leverage  is  not  common  but  it  is  shown  in  the 
action  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the  horse.  The  masseter  muscles 


6  JUDGING   HORSES 

of  the  jaw  apply  their  power  to  the  center  of  the  jaw  bone, 
the  fulcrum  is  at  the  point  where  the  under  jaw  joins  the 
head,  while  the  application  of  the  power  is  at  the  teeth. 

2.  Action  of  the  Muscles.     In  considering  the  leverage, 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles  and  their  nature  are  impor- 
tant.    As  the  muscles  consist  of  bundles  of  fibers,  it  is  easy 
to  understand  that  when  these  fibers  are  long,  they  possess 
more  elasticity  than  when  they  are  short.     The  long  muscle 
with  long  leverage,  added  to  by  length  of  the  bones  is  more 
favorable  for  quick  action  or  speed,  while  the  heavier  muscle 
is  more  favorable  for  draft  or  power.     The  attachment  of  the 
muscles  to  the  skeleton  is  also  an  important  feature.     When 
the  muscles  by  means  of  the  tendons  are  attached  to  promi- 
nences thus  enabling  them  to  work  some  distance  from  the 
bones  that  furnish  the  leverage,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
action  of  the  muscles  would  be  more  effective.     Hence,  in 
most  joints  there  are  prominences  to  give  the  muscles  the 
most  favorable  attachment. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  interesting  to  study  the  pro- 
portions of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  to  find  reasons  for  the 
advantages  which  are  supposed  to  originate  with  different 
proportions.  In  general  we  look  for  short  bones  in  those 
parts  where  the  function  is  simply  the  transmission  of  power; 
while  we  desire  greater  length  in  those 'parts  where  the  mus- 
cles, the  source  of  power  or  speed,  are  to  be  found.  In  the 
front  leg  for  instance,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  distance  long 
from  the  elbow  to  the  knee,  with  the  proportions  showing  a 
much  greater  distance  from  the  knee  to  the  fetlock  joint  for  the 
reason  that  the  distance  over  which  the  power  travels  should 
be  as  short  as  possible  that  it  may  be  economized  and  but 
little  of  it  lost  in  transmission. 

3.  Function  of  the   Nervous  System.     In  studying  the 
horse  as  a  mechanism,  more  than  bone  and  muscle  should  be 
included.     The  stimulation  for  action  comes  from  the  nerve 
power  or  force.     The  nerve  power  is  represented  centrally 


Ancient  and  modern  schools  in  stock  judging.  In  early  times  wnat 
was  known  in  regard  to  the  judging  of  stock  had  to  be  garnered  under  the 
environment  and  with  the  material  shown  in  the  upper  illustration.  Modern 
facilities  and  methods  are  shown  in  the  lower  illustration,  which  is  a  photo- 
graph of  the  stock  judging  pavilion  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  with 
the  first  class  to  come  together  for  special  instruction  in  stock  judging. 
Three  hundred  were  in  attendance  at  this  school  January.  1901. 


•••.ka.ia.ia.ia  O  r  ++ 

Hill  g        .1     .5" 

JjJii  *w*L  .  ^  A  ^iJ-ajLpi 

j  S  igl^ll  o  o-5  S1^  2  ll-S  S  &§:S2  S2  S5ls  g=^S  S  < 


THE  ANATOMY  A  BASIS   OF  STUDY  7 

by  the  brain  and  from  there  it  is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the 
body  by  the  spinal  cord  through  the  main  channel  of  the 
vertebrae,  and  from  this  it  branches  out  to  stimulate  many 
muscles.  The  stimulation  for  action  must  come  from  the 
nerve  centers  and  these  consequently  have  much  to  do  with 
the  quickness  and  the  strength  with  which  a  horse  may  act. 
It  has  been  determined  *  in  the  races  of  dogs  and  other  ani- 
mals showing  superior  speed,  that  the  nerves  regulating  the 
heart  and  lungs  have  greater  power  than  in  the  instance  of 
those  that  are  slower.  Another  authority  f  who  has  given 
this  feature  special  study  states  that  the  degree  of  contraction 
of  the  muscle  is  proportioned  to  the  degree  of  stimulation. 
This  general  statement  serves  to  sustain  the  position  that  the 
horse  of  strong  nervous  organization  has  quicker  and  more 
complete  control  over  its  muscles  than  the  one  deficient  in 
this  feature. 

4.  Temperaments.  To  the  nervous  organization,  its  tone 
and  force,  we  can  largely  trace  the  temperaments  that  are 
characteristic  of  horses.  The  horse  of  nervous  temperament 
expresses  the  fact  by  being  a  willing  and  enduring  worker  in 
its  sphere;  while  the  horse  of  lymphatic  temperament  seem- 
ingly lacks  zest  in  its  labors  for  the  want  of  tone  in  its  nerv- 
ous system.  The  bilious  temperament  reflects  itself  in  a  bad 
temper  and  springs  chiefly  from  the  condition  of  the  body; 
while  the  sanguine  temperament,  resulting  from  apparently 
opposite  conditions,  finds  expression  in  a  disposition  that  is 
kind  and  willing.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that 
the  term  nervous  temperament  is  not  used  in  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  commonly  accepted,  namely,  a  lack  of  nervous 
control;  for  such  a  condition  usually  results  in  an  irritable 
and  erratic  temperament  which  is  devoid  of  results  as 
expressed  in  work. 

*  Mills,  Comparative  Physiology,  page  213. 
t  Smith,  Physiology  of  Animals,  page  721. 


8f  JUDGING   LIGHT  HORSES 

II.      JUDGING   LIGHT   HORSES. 

/.     General  Examination. 

In  the  general  examination  of  horses,  the  form,  quality  and 
action  are  the  chief  features  requiring  consideration.  This 
examination  takes  in  the  horse  as  a  whole,  while  the  struc- 
tural examination  requires  detailed  criticism  of  each  part 
independent  of  others. 

5.  Form — The  Contribution  of  Skeleton  and  Muscle.     To 
be  able  to  accurately  estimate  the  form  of  a  horse,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  understand  the  extent  to  which  the  ^orm  is  due  to 
the  skeleton  and  how  much  of  it  depends  on  the  muscular 
development. 

A  comparison  of  a  skeleton  of  a  horse  with  a  living  and 
well  developed  animal  will  show  clearly  that  some  parts  owe 
their  form  to  the  framework  of  bone,  while  other  regions  are 
shaped  wholly  by  the  muscle.  Beginning  at  the  head,  it 
will  be  noticed  that  the  form  of  it  is  determined  almost  alto- 
gether by  the  bones  that  comprise  it.  The  outlines  of  the 
neck,  however,  are  just  as  distinctly  due  to  the  muscular 
development  of  that  region.  The  shoulder  and  chest  are 
outlined  in  form  chiefly  by  the  skeleton  though  smoothened 
with  muscle.  The  shape  of  the  leg  from  the  knee  upwards 
to  the  body  is  determined  by  muscles  of  that  region,  while 
from  the  knee  to  the  fetlock  the  outline  is  due  largely  to  the 
tendons  that  make  the  leg  at  this  point  appear  flat  from  the 
side.  The  common  supposition  is  that  the  leg  appears  flat 
from  the  side  view  because  the  bone  is  flat,  but  the  fact  is 
the  flat  appearance  is  due  to  the  degree  to  which  the  tendons 
stand  back  from  the  bone. 

6.  Propelling  Power  Resides  in  Hind  Quarters.     A  study 
of  the  degree  to  which  the  skeleton  and  the  muscular  develop- 
ment contribute  to  the  form  of  a  horse,  brings  into  promi- 
nence the  idea  that  most  of  the  power  resides  in  the  hind 
parts.     The  fact  that  the  greatest  muscular  development  is 
in  that  region  would  indicate  this. 


Photo  by   Schrfiber. 

LF.ADER,  THE  SCOTCHMAN,  winner  of  numerous  prizes  at  the  Boston  and 
Philadelphia  horse  shows  in  the  heavy  harness  classes.  Illustrative  of  the 
fullness  and  symmetry  of  form  that  should  be  a  feature  of  the  carriage 
or  coach  type. 


Phcto    from.    Rider    and    Driver. 

TIIK  DEMON  and  LOTHARIO  showing  the  type  desirable  in  a  pair  of  car- 
riage horses. 


Photo  by  Schreiber, 

HOOD'S  MCGREGOR,  record  2:26?,£,  by  Robert  McGregor  2:17*4.  Winner  of 
three  first  prizes  Philadelphia  Horse  Show,  1897,  in  roadster  classes,  and  also 
first  for  best  appointed  road  rig. 


Photo  by  Lillie. 

Saddle  gelding,  COLUMBUS,  showing  Spanish  trot.     Winner  of  first  prize 
high  school  class  at  Kansas  City  Horse  Show,  1898.    Owned  by  C.  T.  Walker, 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  9 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  form  of  the  loin,  the  shape  of  the 
croup,  the  fullness  of  the  thigh  and  quarters  are  due  in  the 
greatest  degree  to  the  extra  development  of  muscle  in  these 
parts.  The  front  quarter  of  the  horse  is  bare  of  muscle  in 
comparison  with  the  hind  quarter. 

Another  reason  for  accepting  this  theory  is  the  difference 
in  the  manner  of  the  attachment  of  the  fore  legs  to  the  body, 
compared  to  that  of  the  hind  legs.  The  shoulder  blade 
is  loosely  attached  to  the  trunk  while  the  hind  leg  connects 
with  the  body  through  the  agency  of  an  unusually  strong 
ball  and  socket  joint.  The  shoulder  blade  plays  loosely, 
seemingly  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  concussion  the  leg 
receives  from  contact  with  the  ground,  while  the  hind  legs 
in  their  connection  with  the  pelvis  make  a  joint  that  is  the 
most  powerful  of  the  body. 

T*  Three  Classes  of  Light  Horses.  The  light  horse  in 
respect  to  form  and  other  characteristics  may  be  divided  into 
three  main  classes:  the  carriage  horse,  the  road  horse  and 
the  saddle  horse.  These  may  be  spoken  of  as  the  most  com- 
mon types  recognized  in  the  market,  while  the  pure  bred 
representatives  of  them  are  to  be  seen  in  the  breeds  of  coach 
horses,  the  standard  trotter  and  the  standard  saddle  horse. 

8.  The  Coach  or  Carriage  Horse.    The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  coach  or  carriage  horse  are  its  symmetry  and 
action.     The  height  should  be  about  16  hands  to  make  a 
good  appearance.     In  contrast  with  the  roadster  the  carriage 
horse  is  very  smooth  and  symmetrical.     The  smoothness 
should  be  due  to  plumpness  of  the  muscle  over  all  parts. 
In  the  carriage  type  the  head  snould  be  comparatively  small 
and  lean,  the  ear  neat,  the  neck  long  and  carried  gracefully, 
the  body  round  and  plump  and  the  limbs  clean  cut,  with 
well  formed  and  durable  feet.     Graceful  carriage  and  stylish 
action  are  leading  qualifications. 

9.  Analysis  of  Style.     When  in  any  posture,  style  is  a 
very  desirable  attribute  in  any  carriage   horse.     A  critical 


10  JUDGING    LIGHT   HORSES 

examination  of  this  type  would  indicate  how  far  the  posses- 
sion of  style  depends  on  the  adjustment  of  the  parts  of  the 
framework.  When  a  carriage  or  coach  horse  possesses 
characteristic  style,  there  seems  to  be  an  appropriate  blend- 
ing of  all  proportions  of  form.  In  analyzing  this  it  will  be 
found  that  most  of  the  lines  have  a  similar  direction,  in 
addition  to  the  fullness  of  contour  already  discussed.  The 
line  running  from  the  poll  to  the  nose  seems  to  be  parallel 
to  that  of  the  shoulder,  the  line  dividing  the  pastern  also 
has  a  similar  direction,  and  the  line  of  the  thigh  in  the  hind 
quarter  corresponds  with  the  slope  of  the  hind  pastern. 
Considering  the  lines  that  run  different  from  these  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  one  made  by  the  arm  from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  elbow  is  very  similar  in  direction  to  that 
made  by  the  ischium  of  the  pelvis  and  this  again  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  lower  thigh.  Kach  part  of  a  typical  carriage 
horse  seems  to  bear  a  fixed  relation  to  every  other  part  both 
in  size,  length  and  slope,  giving  the  horse  that  symmetry 
which  contributes  so  much  to  its  style  and  beauty  while 
standing  or  in  action. 

10.  The  Trotter  OP  Roadster.  The  chief  characteristics 
of  the  roadster  are  speed  and  stamina.  The  ability  to  trot 
fast  is  a  desirable  quality  and  the  ability  to  maintain  a  rapid 
gait  is  equally  essential  in  a  horse  of  this  kind.  In  addition 
to  being  able  to  stand  steady  road  work,  such  a  horse  must 
be  well  mannered  so  as  to  be  safe  and  pleasurable  to  drive. 

The  typical  roadster  may  be  said  to  be  about  15^  hands 
high  and  about  a  thousand  pounds  in  weight.  In  conforma- 
tion the  horse  of  this  class  is  somewhat  narrow  in  front, 
deep  chested,  wide  at  the  loin  and  very  muscular  in  the 
quarters.  Every  feature  about  the  horse  appears  clean  cut, 
giving  a  hard  finish  which  indicates  durability.  The  linea- 
ments of  the  face  and  the  outlines  of  the  neck  and  especially 
the  distinctness  with  which  the  tendons  stand  away  from  the 
leg  are  very  desirable  features. 


Combination  saddle  and  harness  gelding  FIGHLAJSO,  owned  by  Professor 
C.  F.  Curtiss,  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  Ames,  Iowa.  A  winner  at  state 
fairs  in  this  class. 

Prize  winning  Kentucky  bred  saddle  horse  COMPEER,  property  of  Edwin 
n.  Wotherbee,  New  York  City.  The  Breeder's  Gazette,  referring  to  this 
horse,  says  :  *•  Of  magnificent  presence,  with  a  height  of  15.3  and  a  weight 
of  1,100  pounds,  this  young  horse  wants  merely  to  settle  to  his  height  by  the 
development  of  another  /ear;  in  sound  feet,  elastic  pasterns,  quantity  and 
quality  of  bone,  height  at  withers,  range  of  neck  and  strength  of  back  Com- 
peer makes  good  his  name.  Disposition  and  manners  are  the  essentials  of  a 
perfect  saddle  horse,  and  these  Compeer  possesses  in  unusual  degree.  He  is 
brilliant  in  his  action;  his  walk  is  fine,  his  trot  distinguished  by  a  superb  flex 
of  hocks,  while  his  haunches  could  not  be  better  tucked  under  at  the 


Photograph  of  CKESCEUS  2:02^4,  the  champion  trotting  stal'.ion  of  the 
world,  in  track  harness,  with  Geo.  E.  Ketcham,  his  owner,  in  thv.  sulky. 
Cresceus  was  sired  by  Robert  McGregor  2:17%.  Owned  by  Geo.  II. 
Ketcham,  Toledo,  O.  Cresceus  trotted  a  mile  in  1:59%,  but  it  was  dls 
allowed,  owing  to  a  technicality. 


BEN  BOLT,  champion  light  weight  hunter,  Philadelphia  Horse  Show 
Association,  1900.  Owned  and  ridden  by  Miss  Marion  Halloway. 

EAGLE  PLUME,  champion  heavy  weight  hunter. and  winner  of  numerous 
Drizes  as  a  saddle  horse,  owned  by  Geo.  Pepper  &  Sons,  of  Ontario,  Canada. 


Photo  by  Sckreiber 

Polo  pony  owned  by  Robert  E.  Strawbridge,  Philadelphia.    Purchased  a,t 
a  cost  of  $1,000. 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  11 

The  type  lacks  the  fullness  and  symmetry  that  are  char- 
acteristic in  the  carriage  or  coach  horse.  To  do  effective 
and  hard  work  on  the  road  is  the  sphere  of  the  roadster  and 
the  type  that  has  been  evolved  is  an  illustration  of  the  evo- 
lution of  a  form  for  a  specific  purpose.  The  type  of  the  best 
campaigners  that  have  marks  of  2:10  or  better  will  show  a 
similarity  that  indicates  the  type  towards  which  the  trotter  is 
tending.  Though  it  should  be  noted  here  that  the  roadster 
in  show  form  will  show  quite  different  outlines  from  one  that 
has  been  subjected  to  the  hard  training  that  the  campaignei 
receives. 

To  describe  the  roadster  form  in  detail  it  may  be  said  that 
the  head  is  proportioned  to  the  rest  of  the  body,  wide  between 
the  eyes  and  somewhat  sharp  at  the  poll.  The  neck  is  slim, 
long  and  very  often  carried  somewhat  straight,  owing  to  the 
continual  use  of  the  top  check.  .  The  shoulder  slopes  very 
markedly  and  extends  well  along  towards  the  back.  The 
arm  is  short  and  this  with  the  slope  of  the  shoulder  makes 
the  under  line  much  longer  than  the  length  of  the  back. 
The  fore  arm  is  long,  the  cannon  short  and  the  pasterns  with 
sufficient  length  and  slope.  The  horse  appears  too  far  from 
the  ground  in  proportion  to  its  height.  The  back  is  short 
and  strong  rising  some  at  the  hips  and  the  croup  is  strongly 
muscled.  Perhaps  the  most  noticeable  feature  of  the  type 
is  the  exceptional  length  from  the  hip  joint  to  the  point  of 
hock  and  then  from  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  fetlock 
joint  the  distance  is  short,  making  the  hock  appear  as  if  set 
low. 

1 1.  The  Pacer  as  a  Roadster.  As  a  roadster,  the  pacer 
has  many  claims  for  consideration  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
speed  that  characterizes  this  gait  and  the  fact  that  it  is  easily 
maintained  on  smooth  city  roads.  It  is,  however,  mainly  the 
quickness  with  which  full  speed  is  attained  that  makes  the 
pacer  so  popular  among  the  road  riders  of  our  cities.  The 
difficulty  that  a  pacer  encounters  on  rough,  broken  roads  or 


12  JUDGING   LIGHT   HORSES 

in  snow,  makes  it  necessary  to  have  a  smooth  hard  road  to 
enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the  gait. 

Among  pacers  there  is  often  noticeable  a  type  that  is  not 
desirable  in  any  class.  It  can  hardly  be  called  typical 
of  this  class  of  horses  for  many  of  those  that  are  fastest  at 
this  gait,  do  not  have  the  very  low  fore  hand,  the  cramped 
hind  quarters  or  bent-in  hocks  that  are  often  connected  with 
this  form.  The  horse  that  paces  smooth  and  true  exhibits 
an  easy  and  pleasing  manner  of  going  as  well  as  one  effective 
in  producing  speed,  but  there  are  many  varieties  of  this  gait 
that  are  the  reverse  of  this  because  of  defects  in  conformation 
which  preclude  rapid  movement  in  any  other  manner. 

12.  The  Saddle  Horse.     The  type  of  the  saddle  horse  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  carriage  horse  but  the  typical 
saddle  horse  shows  more  quality  and  better  manners  than 
any  other  class  of  light  horses.     Aside  from  these  features 
the  most  necessary  qualifications  of  the  saddle  horse  are  the 
ability  to  show  the  different  gaits  that  are  required  of  horses 
of  this  class.     The  standard  performances  adopted  by  the 
executive  committee  of  the  American  Saddle  Horse  Associa- 
tion  are  the  following  gaits:     (i)  Walk.     (2)  Trot.     (3) 
Single  foot  or  rack      (4)  Canter.     (5)  Slow  pace,  running 
walk  or  fox  trot.     The  gait  known  as  single  foot  or  rack  is 
very  similar  to  the  pace,  except  that  in  the  latter  the  two 
feet  of  the  same  side  move  together  while  in  the  single  foot 
the  hind  foot  reaches  the  ground  shortly  before  the  front 
foot  on  the  same  side.     The  gait  known  as  single  foot  is  con- 
sidered synonymous  with  that  of  the  rack  and  it  has  been 
described  as  exactly  intermediate  between  the  true  walk  and 
the  true  trot,  each  foot  apparently  moves  independent  of  the 
other  with  what  has  been  termed  a  "one  at  a  time  move- 
ment." 

13.  Quality.     This  term  applied  to  horses  has  reference 
to  their  bones,   skin  and   hair.     Evidences  of  quality  are 
clearly  cut  features,  glove-like  skin,  silky  hair  and  firm»  clean 


Lot-  DILLON,  champion  trotter  of  the  world.  Record,  1  mile,  1  :58i/>. 
Bred  by  Pierce  Bros.,  Santa  Rosa,  California.  Owned  by  C.  K.  G.  Billings, 
New  York. 


DAN    PATCH,   champion    pacer   of   the    world.     Record,    1    mile,    1  l 
Owned   by   International    Stock   Food   Co.,   Minneapolis,   Minn. 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  13 

bone.  In  the  instance  of  the  horse  possessing  quality,  the 
lines  of  the  face  are  clearly  defined  and  in  every  region  there 
is  a  complete  absence  of  coarseness.  It  is  possible  in  such  a 
horse  to  easily  distinguish  the  muscles,  tendons  and  bones 
and  when  slightly  exerted,  so  that  the  coat  lies  smooth,  the 
veins  in  the  skin  show  clearly  in  an  intricate  net  work  as 
delicate  and  fine  grained  as  the  skin.  This  freedom  from 
coarseness  in  the  joints  and  tendons  show  a  soundness  in 
these  features  that  guarantees  durability.  Coarse  hair  is 
associated  with  coarse  skin  and  that  is  a  true  indication  of 
soft,  spongy  bones  which  quickly  become  diseased  when  sub- 
jected to  the  strain  of  hard  usage  or  neglect. 

14.  Endurance   Indicated   by   Quality.       The  connection 
between  a  horse' s  staying  power  or  endurance  and  its  quality 
is  frequently  seen  when  subjected  to  severe  road  work,  but 
the  reason  for  the  connection  is  not  so  plainly  evident.     The 
fine  skin  that  is  one  of  the  features  of  high  quality  is  consid- 
ered to  be  of  value  for  what  it  tells  of  the  internal  organiza- 
tion of  the  animal,  for  it  may  be  said  in  a  general  way  that 
the  one  skin  covers  the  horse  internally  as  well  as  externally. 
The  inner  coat  of  the  skin  which  covers  the  ribs  and  all  exter- 
nal parts  is  a  continuation  of  that  which  lines  the  stomach 
and  intestines.     If  the  skin  covering  the  internal  region  is 
soft,    fine   and   pliable  it  indicates  that  the   secretions  are 
healthy  and  it  would  seem  natural  to  reason  from  this  that 
the  lining  of  the  stomach  would  be  in  the  same  state,  and  if 
such  is  the  case  it  is  in  a  better  condition  to  digest  the  food 
that  goes  into  it,  thereby  increasing  the  horse's  recuperative 
powers  and  endurance. 

15.  Durability    Associated    with   Quality.      Quality  in   a 
horse's  limbs  and  feet  is  especially  desirable  for  the  reason 
that  such  prove  more  durable  under  stress  or  strain.     In 
looking  for  this  feature  in  the  leg,  it  is  a  common  practice  to 
run  the  hand  over  the  cannon  bone.     In  doing  this  the  skin 
and  hair  are  felt  against  the  bone  and  if  there  is  the  proper 


14  JUDGING    LIGHT   HORSES 

quality  there,  the  skin  seems  to  melt  from  under  the  hand 
letting  the  latter  come  in  close  contact  with  the  bone  which 
feels  firm  and  smooth.  The  fingers  seem  to  touch  each  other 
as  they  pass  between  the  tendon  and  the  bone  of  the  leg, 
when  the  latter  has  the  right  degree  of  quality.  It  is  a  fact 
that  in  finely  bred  horses  that  undergo  unusual  trials  of 
endurance,  such  as  the  thoroughbred  and  the  trotter,  the 
texture  of  the  bone  is  decidedly  firmer  and  closer  than  that 
of  horses  bred  for  slower  work .  Another  evidence  of  quality 
is  to  be  seen  in  the  lines  showing  the  division  of  the  muscles 
as  these  should  appear  distinct  in  the  horse  of  quality  and 
the  joints  of  the  limbs  should  not  show  any  fullness  but  be 
clearly  defined  and  hard. 

16.  Action  —  Why  Highly  Valued.  In  the  market  for 
light  horses  there  is  no  single  feature  held  in  higher  estima- 
tion than  that  of  desirable  action.  It  has  different  degrees 
of  valuation  when  associated  with  the  various  types  of  horses, 
but  to  sell  well  they  all  must  have  as  much  as  may  be  dis- 
played and  used  to  advantage.  The  fact  that  proper  action 
associated  with  the  coach  type  brings  exceptional  prices  in 
the  market,  would  of  itself  make  the  subject  an  important 
study  but  when  its  influence  on  the  prices  of  all  classes  of 
horses  is  considered,  it  at  once  assumes  the  position  of  being 
the  most  valuable  characteristic  connected  with  the  classes 
of  l;o-bt  horses. 

Good  action  is  mainly  desirable  for  its  utility  and  also  for 
the  many  other  qualities  which  it  indicates.  It  will  readily 
be  expected  that  the  horse  with  good  action  is  more  durable 
and  more  enjoyable,  as  the  work  is  done  easier,  and  also 
more  profitable,  for  more  of  it  is  accomplished.  But  looking 
further  into  the  subject  it  is  surprising  what  other  attributes 
are  dependent  on  it.  The  action  of  a  horse  reflects  its  tem- 
perament, proves  the  balance  of  its  conformation  and  indi- 
cates soundness.  With  right  action  there  must  be  a  dash 
and  zest  which  is  the  outflow  of  a  sanguine  temperament 


High  stepper  in  action.  Photographed  from  "Driving  for  Pleasure." 
showing  the  extreme  degree  to  which  the  knee  and  hock  action  may  be 
developed  by  heavy  shoeing  and  training. 


Photo  by  Schreiber 

LEADEK,  THE  SCOTCHMAN,,  in  action,  showing  the  folding  of  the  knee  and 
the  flexing  of  the  hock  desired  in  carriage  horses. 


Photo  by  Philips,  Independence,  Iowa. 

ALLr.RTON,  record  2:09*4,  in  action,  showing  the  reach  and  movement  to 
secure  greatest  speed. 


ONLINE,  record  2:04,  a  world's  champion  4-year  old  pacer,  owned  by 
the  International  Stock  Food  Co.,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.  The  photograph 
shows  clearly  the  movement  of  the  legs  when  a  horse  paces  level  and  true. 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  15 

making  light  of  the  hardest  effort.  Then  the  conformation 
which  is  but  a  living  mechanism  of  levers,  pullies  and  trans- 
mitters must  have  the  delicate  adjustment  and  balance,  that 
gives  grace  and  smoothness  to  every  movement.  Further 
there  cannot  be  any  unsoundness  to  render  less  free  or  firm 
the  step  as  both  these  characteristics  must  be  prominent  in 
actions  of  all  kinds.  The  more  action  is  studied  the  deeper 
becomes  the  conviction  that  every  attribute  of  the  horse  con- 
tributes to  it.  Kvery  quality  comes  more  or  less  into  play 
and  for  that  reason  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  securing  the 
typical  action  of  the  high  degree  of  merit  are  almost  insuper- 
able. 

17.  The   Walk  —  Active,  Straight,   Level.     Excellence  at 
this  gait  is  a  very  desirable  quality  in  all  varieties  of  horses, 
and  unlike  the  trot  its  meritorious  features  are  the  same  in 
all,  as  it  has  no  connection  with  type.     In  the  enjoyment  of 
a  road  horse  there  is  much  to  admire  in  the  manner  in  which 
he  conducts  himself  when  walking.     It  is  questionable  as  to 
which  is  the  most  pleasurable  to  observe — the  walking  of  the 
horse  whose  step  is  evenly  timed  and  nervy,  or  the  trotting 
of  one  that  has  all  the  grace,  style  and  snap  that  character- 
izes the  coacher. 

18.  Observing    Straightness   of   the   Walk.      In   moving 
away  from  you  the  feet  of  the  active  walker  leave  the  ground 
with  a  quick  snap,  showing  in  its   passage  the  reflection 
of  the  whole  shoe.      After  leaving  the  ground  with  this 
peculiar  snap  the  foot  swings  upward  and  forward,  then 
the  knee  unfolds,  the  pastern  carries  the  foot  gracefully  for- 
ward and  it  again  comes  to  the  ground  lightly  but  firmly 
with  the  characteristic  spring  and  snap  that  identified  the 
first   movement.     The  feet  move   straight  away,  swerving 
neither  to  the  left  or  to  the  right,  nor  should  the  folding  of  the 
knees  or  the  flexing  of  the  hocks  result  in  an  outward  pitch- 
ing or  spreading.     A  horse  that  will  lift  and  plant  his  foot 
in  the  way  described  almost  invariably  has  the  upheaded  and 


16  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

commanding  appearance  in  movement  which  is  so  admirable 
in  the  harness  horse. 

19.  Manner  of  Noting  Levelness.     The  crucial  test  of  the 
balance  of  a  horse's  walk  is  the  side  view.     Any  variation 
from  proper  structural  proportions  results  in  wobbling,  hob- 
bling or  an  otherwise  uneven  walk,  and  all  these  are  readily 
seen  from  the  side.     The  levelness  with  which  a  horse  walks 
is  one  of  the  best  evidences  that  the  legs  work  in  harmony. 
The  most  common  deflection  from  this  is  attributable  to  a 
long,  slim  coupling  which  gives  the  onlooker  the  impression 
that  the  horse  might  break  away  into  two  parts  near  the 
region  of  the  loin.     In  defective  conformations  of  this  kind 
the  stride  of  the  hind  limbs  is  short  and  he  usually  has  an 
uneven,  choppy  gait  that  is  unsightly  as  well  as  ineffectual 
in  covering  distances.     On  the  other  hand  an  opposite  rela- 
tion of  the  parts,  close  coupling  and  short  back,  with  long 
legs,  is  likely  to  give  use  to  a  slovenly  swinging  gait,  pro- 
ducing clicking,  stumbling  or  other  deficiencies.     If  there  is 
a  flaw  in  the  mechanism  of  the  front  legs,  it  is  usually  made 
evident  by  the  movement  of  the  front  feet,  especially  as  they 
are  about  to  touch  the  ground.     If  the  limb  proportions  are 
ungainly  the  feet  do  not  seem  to  reach  the  ground  at  the 
proper  stage,  either  turning  too  much  on  the  heel  or  not  turn- 
ing enough  and  precipitating  the  toe.     From  behind  it  is 
easy  to  observe  if  the  walk  of  the  hind  limbs  is  level  thus 
being. free  from  any  hitching,  wobbling  or  unevenness  in 
the  stride. 

20.  The   High  Stepper  in  Action.     The  highest  priced 
action  in  the  general  horse  market  is  that  of  the  high  stepper. 
The  peculiarity  of  this  action  consists  in  lifting  the  knees 
inordinately  high  and  flexing  the  hocks  so  that  they  come 
close  to  the  body  and  keep  the  legs  well  under  it.     From 
the  standpoint  of  action  alone,  the  higher  the  knees  and  the 
^ocks  are  lifted  the  more  valuable  is  the  horse,  provided 
the   type    and  other   features   more   common   are  equally 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  17 

satisfactory.  The  feet  must  be  thrown  forward  without  any 
dishing  on  either  side  and  the  hocks  must  pass  each  other 
close  and  in  line  with  the  forward  movement.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  that  while  this  method  of  movement  is  the  most 
showy  and  stylish,  it  is  not  serviceable  action  for  a  road  horse. 
The  front  legs  soon  succumb  to  the  heavy  concussion  they 
would  be  called  upon  to  stand  under  hard  driving.  But 
this  action  is  sought  only  in  the  horse  that  is  used  for  short 
drives  about  the  city  where  style  is  paramount  to  speed  and 
stamina..  While  it  is  recognized  that  the  high  stepper  should 
have  as  many  as  possible  of  the  other  qualities  of  excellence 
in  addition  to  high  action,  yet  all  others  are  considered  o: 
minor  value  among  horses  of  this  class.  "  All-around  action 
only  to  be  considered  ' '  is  the  current  phrase  in  the  prize  lists 
that  provide  classes  for  competition  among  the  high  steppers, 
which  means  a  combination  of  shoulder,  knee  and  hock 
action. 

21.  The  Carriage  Horse — Manners  When  in  Motion.  A 
connoisseur  of  horses  will  see  much  more  than  the  legs  of  ? 
carriage  horse  when  moving.  As  such  a  horse  moves  before 
an  appropriate  vehicle  with  the  latitude  of  a  light  hand 
assisting  him  there  are  flashes  of  gracefulness  from  every 
motion.  With  this  there  is  a  quality  of  mind  that  gives 
buoyancy  to  the  step  and  accounts  in  no  small  degree  for  the 
uplifted  carriage  of  the  head.  It  is  expressive  of  a  happy 
temperament  that  gives  gracefulness  to  every  poise  and 
smooth  flow  to  every  movement.  Even  such  a  minor  organ 
as  an  ear  plays  its  part,  the  eye,  too,  shows  the  fire  from 
within  and  challenges  the  critic  for  its  meed  of  praise  in 
measuring  the  step  and  alertness  in  giving  it  security.  Scan 
the  lines  of  the  neck,  and  notice  their  tenseness  and  yet  the 
unusual  elasticity  it  shows  when  occasion  offers  for  the  move- 
ment of  greater  gracefulness.  The  shoulder  plays  with  free- 
dom and  the  smooth  turned  loin  and  quarter  seems  the  only 


18  JUDGING   LIGHT  HORSES 

region  that  are  not  taking  part  in  this  unusual  display, 
though  in  this  immobility  they  show  their  real  strength. 

22.  Straight  and  Regular  Action.     As  to  the  action  of  the 
fore  legs,  it  is  straight  away  with  continuous  folding  and 
unfolding.     In  the  action  of  the  carriage  horse  there  must 
be  some  style  and  dash  and  high  lifting  of  the  feet,  but  never 
enough  of  it  to  make  the  action  unserviceable.     At  no  time 
is  the  fore  leg  held  in  poise  as  it  does  not  dwell  either  in 
flexion  or  extension.     The  foot  snaps  from  the  ground  and 
is  then  carried  forward  wkile  the  limb  unfolds,  as  if  follow- 
ing the  rim  of  a  wheel.     It  seems  to  reach  the  ground  at  the 
right  stage  of  the  unfolding  so  that  it  is  not  held  in  suspense 
at  any  point  along  the  line  of  descent.     The  feet  pass  close 
and  in  a  straight  line  so  that  there  is  no  swaying  or  dropping 
down  of  the  fore  hand  with  each  step.    The  hind  foot  leaves 
the  ground  with  the  same  quick  movement  and  at  no  time 
is  it  allowed  to  hang  back  so  as  to  give  the  horse  the  appear- 
ance of  not  gathering  himself  well  together. 

23.  The  Driver's  Sensation  of  Action.     After  all  is  writ- 
ten that  it  is  possible  to  write  about  the  action  of  the  car- 
riage horse,  there  is  something  else  that  must  go  with  it  which 
can  not  be  described  with  sufficient  vividness  to  make  the 
novice  appreciate  it.     It  has  something  to  do  with  power 
and  its  connection  between  the  animal  and  its  master  seems 
to  be  the  driving  lines.     As  you  sit  behind  the  horse  of  true 
carriage  action  and  conduct  you  feel  your  proximity  to  a 
powerful  mechanism  that  is  undergoing  a  test  of  its  minutest 
parts.     If  anything  fails  everything  will  be  demoralized  but 
it  is  the  feeling  of  strength  and  power  in  the  animal  that 
allays  unnecessary  fears. 

Without  leaving  this  feature  connected  with  the  carriage 
horse  let  us  study  its  relation  to  the  trotter.  Substance  and 
strength  in  the  carriage  horse  gives  momentum  to  the  occu- 
pants of  the  somewhat  cumbersome  carriage,  while  the  trot- 
ter loses  these  for  speed  and  stamina.  Between  the  trotter 


An  easy  and  satisfactory  method  of  opening  a  horse's  mouth.  The  two 
thumbs  are  inserted  just  back  of  the  incisors  and  the  lower  is  pressed  down 
so  that  the  horse  drops  the  lower  jaw.  It-  is  usually  easy  in  this  way  to  make 
observations  regarding  the  teeth. 


Proper  method  of  lifting  and  holding  the  foot  of  a  horse.  In  seeking  to 
lift  the  front  foot  of  a  horse  the  hand  should  be  run  over  the  cannon  in  the 
manner  indicated  in  one  of  the  photographs.  Usually  a  horse  will  lift  his 
foot  as  soon  as  this  done.  To  hold  it  firmly  without  much  effort,  the  proper 
plan  is  to  hold  the  toe  with  the  foot  doubled  against  the  elbow  as  shown  in 
the  above  photograph. 


2'ne  illustration  on  the  right  hand  shows  a  well  bred  and  intelligent  head, 
fche  subject  being  LOLA  RoNAN.-»standard  bred  road  mare  owned  by  the 
author,  while  that  to  the  left  is  a  photograph  of  a  head  showing  lack  of 
breeding  and  deficient  in  fullness  of  forehead. 


Two   photographs  to  illustrate  the  differences    in    the    appearance    or 
horses'  heads  when  they  are  trimmed  and  untrimmed.    The   head  shown 
trimmed  is  that  of  Boralma.  2:08,  the  unbeaten  four-year-old  trotter.    * 
The  trim  appearance  of  the  head  is  to  some  extent  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  foretop  has  been  clipped,  the  ears  trimmed,  the  mane  clipped  back  of  the 
foretop.    The  companion  head,  on  the  right,  though  of  a  French  Coach  mare 
showing  abundance  of  quality,  is  yet  very  coarse  in  appearance,  largely  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  head  has  not  been  trimmed.    The  mane  has  not  been 
cut  away.    The  long  hair  is  in  the  ears,  the  foretop  has  not  been  removed 
while  the  long  growth  of  coarse  hair  below  the  jaw  has  not  been  trimmed. 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  ,19 

and  its  driver  the  feeling  is  that  of  flight  instead  of  power  in 
motion.  The  difference  in  the  feeling  resulting  from  follow- 
ing the  movement  of  these  two  classes  of  horses  might  be 
better  expressed  by  reference  to  the  difference  in  the  feeling 
that  one  has  when  standing  beside  a  swift  turning  windmill, 
as  compared  with  the  effects  of  observing  the  turn  of  a  pon- 
derous water  wheel.  The  former  takes  advantage  of  every 
breath  of  wind  and  speeds  a  merry  clip  without  apparent 
exertion  or  strength;  the  other  impresses  one  at  once  with 
its  power  and  in  a  lesser  degree  with  its  combination  of 
strength  and  speed. 

24.  The  Trotter — Speed  and  Stamina.  The  leading  fea- 
ture of  the  action  of  the  trotter  is  speed  at  the  trotting  gait, 
but  there  are  many  others  that  must  be  companions  of  this 
to  result  in  the  greatest  development  and  the  chief  of  these 
is  stamina  or  the  ability  to  maintain  the  necessary  gait. 
It  is  generally  thought  that  if  a  horse  has  speed  he  has  the 
one  essential  necessary  to  make  a  trotter  or  a  good  road 
horse.  Not  only  is  speed  desirable  but  there  must  be  a  true 
balance  of  parts,  that  insures  their  protection  together  with 
trueness  of  stride.  Being  true  and  level  gaited  guarantees 
the  greatest  durability  and  that  with  an  ambitions  turn  of 
mind  give  us  that  very  desirable  quality  in  the  trotter, 
termed  "  gameness  "  or  stamina.  Of  all  features  of  the  trot- 
ter's action  it  must  be  the  most  evident  that  it  is  not  in  the 
least  wasteful  of  energy.  While  that  of  the  carriage  horse 
or  high  stepper  must  display  effort,  the  trotter  should  move 
so  as  to  leave  the  least  impression  of  this. 

Less  roll  to  the  knee,  more  propulsion  from  the  stifle  and 
less  motion  in  the  hocks  carries  the  trotter  forward  closer  to 
the  ground  and  with  less  expenditure  of  force  and  without  the 
higher  lifting  of  the  knee  and  hock  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  high  stepper.  There  is  much  more  extension  of  the  limbs 
in  the  trotter,  as  shown  in  the  reach  of  the  fore  leg,  while  the 
hind  legs  pass  back  farther  and  reach  farther  fb^v/ard  than 


*>0  JUDGING   LIGHT   HORSES 

in  the  action  of  the  high  stepper  or  carriage  horse  as  the  latter 
must  keep  his  legs  under  him  to  gather  himself  together  in  the 
proper  degree.  A  wider  spread  in  the  movement  of  the  hind 
legs  in  the  instance  of  the  trotter  is  not  as  bad  a  fault  as  it 
would  be  if  associated  with  the  carriage  horse.  It  is  frequently 
noticeable  as  a  distinction  between  the  action  of  a  trotter  and 
coacher,  that  the  latter  is  balanced  in  stride  when  going  an 
easy  gait  but  becomes  unbalanced  or  weak  when  urged 
beyond  it,  while  the  trotter  may  very  often  show  an  uneven 
gait  when  moving  slowly  but  when  urged  to  the  limit  of  its 
speed,  displays  truly  balanced  action  without  any  tendency 
towards  losing  its  stride. 

25.  The  Pacing  Gait — Level  and  True.  A  study  of  this 
gait  will  disclose  the  fact  that  there  is  more  variations  in  it 
than  in  any  other  form  of  action.  Horses  pace  in  many 
ways,  some  lurching,  others  shuffling  and  many  more  wob- 
bling in  an  unsightly  manner;  but,  however  they  may  go,  they 
are  nearly  all  characterized  by  possessing  speed.  A  level 
and  true  pacer  displays  a  sightly  gait.  In  pacing  level  and 
true  the  body  remains  steadier  than  in  any  other  movement. 
The  legs  move  in  harmony  with  the  directness  of  a  machine. 
The  nervy,  machine-like  pace  peculiar  to  many  of  the  fast 
pacing  animals  is  a  study  in  the  degree  to  which  the  mini- 
mum of  effort  results  in  the  maximum  of  speed.  Some  horses 
pace  because  of  bent  hocks,  others  because  of  ungainly  pro- 
portion but  when  the  gait  results  from  breeding  and  is  the 
outcome  of  straight  and  direct  movement,  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  a  gait  with  less  friction  or  display  of  effort.  In  the 
instance  of  the  horse  that  possesses  true  excellence  at  this 
gait,  if  you  were  to  shut  off  your  view  of  the  limbs  in  motion, 
you  would  have  the  impression  that  the  animal  was  standing 
on  a  rapidly  moving  train  hidden  from  your  view,  so  little 
does  the  body  and  other  parts  above  the  line  make  any  dis- 
play of  effort.  As  a  rule  the  pace  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
spectator  is  an  unsightly  gait,  but  one  that  is  usually 


These  photographs  have  been  selected  to  show  the  differences  In  the  dis- 
positions of  horses.  The  upper  one  shows  desirable  temperament,  with  har- 
mony between  horse  and  rider.  The  lower  one  shows  horse  and  rider  out  of 
touch  with  each  other  and  the  horse  discloses  by  expression  and  countenance 
a  strong  will  and  vicious  disposition. 


Photo  from  Horse  Show  Monthly 

A  row  of  good  heads.  The  heads  of  the  horses  shown  here  indicate  a 
high  order  of  intelligence,  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  they  all  possess  suffi- 
cient intellect  to  act.  Beginning  on  the  left  hand  their  names  are  Charley 
Adams,  Nixon,  Alice,  Blair,  Charlie  Ross,  Ella,  Maud.  They  are  used  in 
the  stage  plays  Sporting  Life  and  the  Great  Ruby.  They  are  owned  by  the 
LeRoy  Payne  Co.,  of  171  Michigan  Avenue,  Chicago.  Without  exception  they 
show  intelligent  heads  in  that  they  display  full  foreheads,  open  counte- 
nances, large  eyes,  with  abundant  width  between  them. 


Rules  Governing  Position  of  the  Limbs  of  the  Horse  When  Standing. 


FRONT  VIEW  OF  FORE  LIMBS. 

A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  polntrof  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  Cut  A  of  Plate  I  represents  the  right  conformation.  B,  C,  D. 
E.  F  and  G  represent  common  defects. 


•  L 


SIDE  VIEW  OP  FORB  LIMBS. 

A  vertical  line  drawn  downward  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  Joint  should  fall  upon  the 
centerof  the  knee  and  pastern  Joints  and  back  of  the  foot;  and  a  vertical  line  drawn  down 
ward  from  the  middle  of  the  arm  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot.  Cut  A  of  Plate  II  re- 
presents the  right  conformation.  B,  shows  the  foot  placed  too  far  back;  C,  too  far  forward. 
D,  "knee  sprung"  and  E.  "knock  kneed." 


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SIDE  VIEW  OF  HIND  LIMBS. 

A  vertical  line  drawn  downward  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot 
and  divide  the  gaskln  In  the  middle;  and  a  vertical  line  drawn  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 
should  coincide  with  the  angle  of  the  hock  and  pastern  joints.  Cut  A  of  Plate  III  represents 
right  conformation.  B,  Cand  D  represent  common  defects. 


REAR  VIEW  OF  HIND   LIMB5. 


A  vertical  line  drawn  downward  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  Cut  A  of  Plate  IV  represent  conformation.  B.  Ct  l> 
and  B  represent  common  defects. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  21 

thoroughly  enjoyable  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  driver. 
Owing  to  the  ease  with  which  the  pacer  moves  and  the  light- 
ness with  which  they  speed  over  pavements,  combined  with 
the  rapidity  with  which  they  can  reach  their  speed,  the  pacer 
has  become  very  popular  among  city  road  riders. 

//.     Structural  Examination. 

Thus  far  the  features  that  enter  largely  into  the  general 
appearance  of  the  horse,  the  form,  quality  and  action,  have 
been  considered,  but  in  addition  to  these  qualities  there  are 
numerous  details  of  structure  and  soundness  which  have  a 
predominating  influence  on  the  value  of  any  of  the  classes 
that  have  been  discussed.  Not  only  must  horses  of  the 
classes  described  prove  sound  to  be  of  service,  but  to  sell 
well  they  must  also  show  the  strength  of  structure  that 
wards  off  the  possibility  of  any  unsoundness  -developing  in 
the  future.  A  badly  constructed  hock  without  a  curb  may 
depreciate  the  value  of  the  horse  fully  as  much  as  a  curb 
present  on  a  strong  and  well  formed  hock.  The  first  does 
not  have  a  curb  solely  because  it  has  never  been  subjected 
to  a  strain,  while  the  curb  in  the  latter  instance  must  have 
been  due  to  stress  of  more  than  common  severity.  To 
discuss  this  division  of  the  subject  in  detail  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  arrange  the  material  that  follows  so  as  to  consider 
the  various  parts  of  a  horse  completely. 

26.  Head — Straight,  Lean.  The  shape  of  the  head  and  the 
countenance  of  a  horse  adds  greatly  to  its  appearance,  end  as 
this  is  the  part  which  is  most  frequently  observed  it  becomes 
of  some  importance.  The  line  from  the  ears  to  the  point  of  the 
nose  as  seen  from  the  side  should  be  almost  straight.  In 
scanning  the  photographs  of  a  great  number  of  trotters  it 
will  be  noticed  that  nearly  all  stallions  have  slight  Roman 
noses  while  most  of  the  mares  have  slightly  dished  faces,  a 
distinction  which  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  the  sexes.  As 
a  rule  it  will  be  found  thai  horses  of  very  prominent  Roman 


22  JUDGING   LIGHT  HORSES 

noses  are  self  willed.  Small  nostrils  are  generally  associ- 
ated with  this  form  of  nose  and  as  a  consequence  we  find  in 
such  instances,  that  the  respiratory  or  breathing  organs  lack 
development.  The  features  of  the  face  should  be  distinct, 
without  the  least  appearance  of  coarseness  or  meatiness.  A 
lean  face  is  suggestive  of  good  quality  in  a  horse.  The 
muzzle  should  be  fine  in  quality  to  make  the  head  appear  at 
its  best.  Between  the  eyes  there  should  be  breadth  enough 
to  give  a  pleasing  frankness  to  the  countenance.  It  is  a 
point  of  practical  value  as  an  index  to  the  brain  development 
which  is  of  much  importance  in  a  light  horse,  for  in  this  class 
intelligence  is  a  merit  of  high  value.  While  it  is  granted 
that  the  intelligence  of  a  horse  depends  mostly  on  the  train- 
ing received,  yet  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  benefit 
which  horses  derive  from  training,  and  that  difference  may 
only  be  accounted  for  by  variations  in  the  brain  development. 

27.  Nostrils— Large,  Open.   The  nostrils  of  a  horse  should 
be  large,  thin,  dilatable  and  of  a  pink  color.     While  there 
should  be  no  discharges  from  them,  they  should  always  have 
the  appearance  of  being  moist. 

28.  Eyes — Full,  Clear.  A  bright  eye  indicates  vigor  of  con- 
stitution, that  IS;  stamina,  staying  power,  or  bottom  as  it  is 
sometimes  called.     It  is  also  associated  with  a  happy  disposi- 
tion and  it  seems  to  be  this  that  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
some  horses  do  an  enormous  amount  of  work  with  little 
worry  and  strain  upon  themselves.     A  large,  full,  clear  eye 
is  indicative  of  a  kind,  generous  disposition  and  good  health. 

29.  Ears—  Erect,  Active.  The  ears  should  be  close  together 
and  carried  in  an  erect  position.     They  should  be  active  and 
somewhat  pointed.    Lop  ears  indicate  lassitude,  or  in  plainer 
words,  laziness.     When  it  is  noticed  that  a  horse  does  not 
shift  or  move  either  of  its  ears  to  any  extent  to  catch  sound, 
it  is  safe  to  presume  that  it  is  afflicted  with  deafness.     On 
the  other  hand  if  it  is  continually  moving  them,  it  is  advis- 
able to  inspect  the  eyesight  carefully  as  it  is  likely  that  the 


STRUCTURAL    EXAMINATION  23 

extra  labor  imposed  on  the  ears  has  its  origin  in  the  defect 
of  one  or  both  of  the  eyes. 

30.  Jaw  Bones— Wide,  Sharp.     Between  the  jaw  bones 
there  should  be  sufficient  width  for  a  large  wind-pipe  and  also 
enough  to  allow  the  head  to  play  freely  on  the  neck.  When  the 
space  between  the  jaw  bones  is  very  narrow  it  will  often  be 
noticed  that  the  horse  carries  his  head  stiffly,  but  when  there 
is  sufficient  width  in  this  region,  the  head  is  usually  carried 
gracefully  and  moved  freely  on  the  neck.     The  throttle  or 
throat  latch  should  be  light  without  any  unnatural  fullness 
between  the  jaw  bones  or  heaviness  at  the  juncture  of  the 
head  and  neck. 

31.  Neck — Arched,  Muscled.     A  nicely  moulded  and  dis- 
tinctly chiseled  neck  of  sufficient  length,  carrying  the  head 
gracefully  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  features  of  the  light 
horse.  Extending  towards  the  shoulder  the  neck  should  swell 
gradually  so  as  to  join  the  body  smoothly.     The  windpipe 
should  be  large  and  appear  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  neck 
and  the  upper  outlines  of  the  latter  should  be  sharp.     While 
many  excellent  road  horses  have  what  is  called  a  ewe  neck, 
it  is  none  the  less  a  defect  as  it  detracts  very  much  from  a 
symmetrical  appearance. 

32.  Chest— Deep,  Projecting.     In  the  light  horse  that  is 
called  upon  for  light  work,  the  chest  should  obtain  its  capa- 
city more  by  depth  than  breadth.     The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  deeper  chest  permits  the  freer  play  of  the  shoulder.     It 
is  easy  to  see  that  swift,  smooth  action  of  the  fore  legs  is 
hardly  possible  in  the  broad  chested  horse,  mainly  because 
it  throws  them  too  far  apart  and  out  of  line  with  those 
behind.     It  will  often  be  noticed  in  this  direction  that  too 
much  width  causes  the  horse  to  pitch  or  roll  in  its  action. 
A  deep  chest  is  evidence  of  staying  power.     The  conforma- 
tion of  noted  campaigners  on  the  turf,  such  as  Mary  Marshall 
(2:12),  The  Abbot  (2:03^),  Cresceus  (2:o2j)may  be  cited 
to  illustrate  full  development  in  this  feature. 


24  JUDGING    LIGHT   HORSES 

33.  Shoulders — Long,  Oblique.     The  conformation  of  the 
shoulder  is  one  of  the  parts  of  all  light  horses  that  requires 
critical  scanning.     To  give  elasticity  to  the  movement  of 
saddle  horses  and  to  permit  of  quick  and  clean  action  in  the 
roadster,   the   shoulder  should  be  long  and   oblique.     An 
upright  shoulder  is  very  likely  to  result  in  short,   stilted 
action,  frequently  accompanied  by  stumbling,  and  it  is  quite 
a  fertile  cause  of  such  bone  diseases  as  sidebones  and  ring- 
bones.    The  high  action  which  is  desired  in  the  coach  horse 
and  the  long  reaching,  clean  action  so  sought  after  in  the 
roadster  depends  as  much  on  the  obliquity  and  freedom  of 
movement  in  the  shoulder,   as  in  any  other  feature.     In 
addition,  a  sloping  and  long  shoulder  strengthens  the  back 
and  extends  the  length  of  the  under-line.     The  muscular 
development  of  the  shoulder  should  also  be  carefully  noted, 
for  if  there  is  an  unusual  bareness  or  lack  of  muscular  cover- 
ing it  would  denote  the  fact  that  sweeny  has  affected  it. 

34.  Forelegs — Broad,  Cordy,  Straight.     The  appearance 
of  the  fore  leg  from  the  side  should  show  it  to  be  flat  and  cordy. 
The  flatness  shows  the  tendons  to  be  properly  attached  and 
some  distance  from  the  bone  and  the  clean  cut  appearance 
denotes  the  absence  of  any  coarseness  about  the  legs.     View- 
ing the  legs  from  in  front  and  using  a  plumb  line  it  will  be 
found  in  the  instance  of  a  leg  that  is  straight,  that  a  perpen- 
dicular line  downward  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder, 
should  equally  divide  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot. 
Viewing  the  fore  leg  from  the  side,  a  similar  line  dropped 
from  the  center  of  the  leg  at  a  point  where.it  joins  the  body 
should  nearly  divide  the  leg  until  the  fetlock  joint  is  reached 
and  from  there  to  the  ground  it  should  fall  exactly  behind 
the  foot.     Any  variation  from  these  two  lines  shows  crook- 
edness from  either  point  of  view.     The  leg  should  be  long 
from  the  elbow  to  the  knee,  for  the  reason  that  free  and 
clean  action  follows  such  a  conformation.     In  these  parts  it 
will  be  noticed  that  most  of  the  muscles  extending  and 


The  photo  on  the  left,  HUMMER  6112,  shows  a  sloping  shoulder  and  a  lore 
leg  of  quality  sat  properly  and  strongly  supported  below  the  knee  with  cor- 
rect pastern  and  excenent  foot.  Subject  of  the  other  photo  is  too  straight 
in  shoulder  and  pastern  with  weak  knees. 


Photo  of  a  smoothly  turned  horse,  especially  round  ribbed  and  on  that 
account  appearing  too  long  in  the  legs,  though  not  really  so. 


The  illustration  on  the  right  is  a  photograph  of  the  hind  quarter  of  ST. 
SAVIOUR,  a  thoroughbred  stallion,  showing  a  clean,  strong  hock  and  properly 
set  hind  leg.  The  photograph  on  the  left  shows  a  curb  on  the  right  leg  due 
to  a  weakly  supported  hock  also  improperly  set. 


The  left  illustration  shows  a  hind  leg  too  straight,  while  the  right  one 
shows  the  other  extreme  in  being  set  too  far  back. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  25 

flexing  the  leg,  are  located  between  the  elbow  and  the  knee. 
If  this  region  is  long,  the  muscle  must  necessarily  be  long 
and  that  produces  quick  and  easy  action.  The  muscle  of  the 
fore  arm  flexes  and  extends  the  rest  of  the  leg,  and  in  order 
that  these  motions  may  take  place  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  power  the  course  over  which  it  must  travel  must  be  as 
short  as  possible;  that  is,  the  cannon  running  from  the  knee 
to  the  fetlock  should  be  much  shorter  than  from  the  knee  to 
the  elbow. 

Mr.  H.  T.  Helm  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  effect 
that  the  proportions  of  these  parts  to  each  other  have  upon  the 
horse's  action.  He  has  measured  a  great  many  horses  and 
finds  that  their  action  in  the  fore  legs  seems  to  be  governed  by 
the  proportionate  length  of  the  fore  arm  and  the  cannon.  He 
found  that  Administrator  has  superior  action  in  front,  and 
that  his  cannon  was  1 1  ^  inches  long,  and  the  fore  arm  2  \ 
inches  long.  About  the  same  proportions  were  found  tc 
exist  in  the  fore  legs  of  George  Wilkes,  and  there  was  no  lack 
of  knee  action  in  his  movement.  The  actual  proportions 
were  10^  to  20  inches.  In  Governor  Sprague  the  cannon 
was  1 1  inches  and  the  fore  arm  21  inches,  and  here  the  front 
action  was  not  quite  as  rounding  as  that  of  George  Wilkes, 
In  the  instance  of  St.  Lawrence,  the  proportions  were  11% 
to  21  inches  and  the  action  was  noted  to  be  far  reaching  and 
gently  curving.  It  will  be  easily  understood  that  the  strain 
upon  the  knees  would  be  greater  in  those  horses  that  were 
long  in  the  cannons  in  comparison  with  the  length  of  the 
fore  arm,  and  it  will  usually  be  found  that  such  a  conforma- 
tion predisposes  a  horse  to  weak  knees.  On  the  other  hand 
when  the  fore  arm  is  inordinantely  long  the  tendency  is  for 
the  front  legs  to  bend  back  at  the  knees  and  give  rise  to  what 
is  commonly  termed  calf  knees. 

35.  Arms — Short,  Thrown  Forward.  The  humerus  which 
forms  the  arm  should  be  short  and  appear  comparatively 


26  JUDGING   LIGHT   HORSES 

straight.     When  it  is  so,  it  gives  a  horse  an  upright  appear- 
ance and  adds  to  the  latter' s  style. 

36.  Elbows— Free.     The  space  between  the  leg  and  the 
body  should  permit  of  easy  insertion  of  the  hand.  If  the  elbow 
is  closer  than  this  or  tied  in,  as  it  is  termed,  the  toes  are  usually 
thrown  out;  or  if  the  opposite  is  the  case,  the  toes  are  likely 
to  be  thrown  in,  which  makes  the  action  of  the  horse  awk- 
ward and  dangerous. 

37.  Fore  Arms— Wide,  Muscled,    Perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant matter  to  notice  in  examining  the  fore  leg  is  the  size  of 
the  fore  arm,  or  the  muscular  development  observable  just 
below  the  juncture  of  the  leg  and  the  body.     As  fat  accumu- 
lates very  little  there  it  is  a  safe  criterion  of  the  muscular 
development  of  the  animal. 

38.  Knees— Wide,  Deep,  Straight.     The  knees  should  be 
broad  in  front,  much  broader  than  the  rest  of  the  leg,  either 
above  or  below,  and  the  pisiform  bone,  which  is  the  bone  form- 
ing the  projection  at  the  back  of  the  knee,  should  be  sharp  and 
prominent,  for  to  this  some  of  the  most  important  muscles  of 
the  fore  leg  are  attached.    Breadth  is  desirable  in  such  joints, 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  concussion  is  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed, and  better  spent  by  the  many  bones  forming  the 
joint,  when  their  surfaces  are  large.     The  most  common 
defects  of  the  knee  are  calf  knees,  knock  knees,  knee  sprung, 
speedy  cut  and  scars. 

39.  Cannons — Wide,  Short,  Large  Sinews.     There  should 
be  very  little  shrinkage  below  the  knee  as  the  joints  require  as 
much  support  as  possible.     This  defect  of  being  tied  in  below 
the  knee  is  one  of  the  most  common  weaknesses  to  be  seen  in 
the  fore  legs  of  light  horses.     A  light  horse  of  common  size 
should  measure  at  least  8  inches  at  this  point.     The  cannon 
should  be  short,  wide  and  clean  and  the  sinews  should  be 
back  from  the  bone.     It  is  sometimes  noticeable  that  the 
cannon  is  thicker  than  usual  which  is  generally  caused  by 
hard  road  work. 


A  fully  developed  bog  spavin  is  shown  on  the  left  leg  in  the  right  hand 
illustration,  while  the  one  in  the  left  illustration  shows  a  large  ringbone 
at  the  base  of  the  pastern. 


A  clean,  clearly  defined  hock  appears  in  the  photo  on  the  right  shown 
from  the  point  of  view  most  likely  to  discover  bone  spavin.  The  photo  to 
the  left  shows  this,  as  a  spavin  may  be  clearly  seen  at  the  inner  base  of  the 
right  hock. 


I 


Photo  by  G.  A.  Tadman. 

The  illustration  to  the  right  shows  a  cocked  ankle,  while  the  other  one 
is  a  photograph  of  a  large  sidebone  which  may  be  seen  on  the  outside  of  the 
right  leg  at  the  junction  of  the  pastern  and  foot. 


Prize  winning  Mammoth  jack,  JUMBOAK,  owned  by  W.  R.  Goodwin,  Jr., 
Oakhurst  Otock  Farm,  Napersville,  Illinois.  In  size  oi  bone  and  general 
form  this  jack  shows  the  characteristics  which  are  .most  sought  in  this 
breed.  First  prize  at  Illinois  State  Fair,  1900;  height,  15.3;  weight.  1,100  ibs. 
at  three  years  old,  Sold  for  $J,000, 


STRUCTURAL   EXAMINATION  27 

40.  Pasterns  —  Sloping,  Strong.    The  pastern  should  stand 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  ground, and  with  the  cannon 
it  should  form  an  angle  of  about  135  degrees.     When  more 
upright  than  this,  they  will  cause  bone  diseases,  such  as  side- 
bones  and  ringbones,  as  the  concussion  is  very  severe  in 
such  instances.     Moreover  it  detracts  greatly  from  the  utility 
of  the  light  horse,  especially  those  intended  for  the  saddle, 
as  the  step  is  short  and  stilted,  and  this  is  very  disagreeable 
to  the  rider.     On  the  other  hand,  sometimes  the  pasterns  of 
light  horses,  and  of  thoroughbred  horses  especially,  are  too 
long  and  slanting,  which  weakens  them  and  ultimately  ends 
in  the  snapping  of  the  suspensory  ligament  resulting  in  the 
horse  "breaking  down." 

41.  Feet — Dense,  Waxy,  Large.     The  foot  should  receive 
careful  attention  as  it  has  an  important  part  to  play  in  the 
work  of  the  horse,  and  it  is  subject  to  many  defects  and  various 
kinds  of  unsoundness.     It  should  be  of  firm  texture,  good 
size,  moderately  upright  and  thoroughly  sound.     It  should 
have  a  healthy  appearance  which  is  indicated  by  an  oily  coat 
of  natural  wax.     The  frog  should  bear  the  mark  of  natural 
usage  as  a  buffer,  being  spongy  and  touching  the  ground  at 
each  step.     The  roof  or  sole  of  the  hoof  should  be  distinctly 
concave.     Flatness,  brittleness  and  contraction,  are  the  three 
most  common  defects  in  horses'  feet.     It  will  be  noticed  in 
many  instances  that  the  bar  of  the  foot  has  been  cut  away, 
so  that  the  hoof  splits  from  the  heel  towards  the  coronet. 
This  is  due  to  the  blacksmith's  practice  of  cutting  away  the 
bars  that  bind  the  foot  together.    When  this  is  done  the  foot 
begins  to  spread  and  the  crack  ultimately  extends  as  far  as 
possible. 

42.  Ribs — Well  Sprung,  Deep,  Close.    The  ribs  should  be 
well  sprung  from  the  spine  and  they  should  be  close  to  each 
other.     It  will  generally  be  found  that  horses  having  well 
sprung  ribs  always  make  a  better  appearance  than  those  that 
are  flat  ribbed ;  and,  in  addition,  they  will  be  found  to  be 


2(5  JUDGING   LIGHT   HORSES 

easier  keepers.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  round  ribbed 
horse  always  has  the  appearance  of  being  inordinately  long 
in  the  legs.  This  deception  is  due  to  the  roundness  of  the 
body.  It  can  easily  be  seen  that  from  a  side  view  the  flat 
ribbed  horse  presents  a  body  of  deeper  appearance  and  seem- 
ingly has  shorter  legs  than  the  horse  that  is  rounder  ribbed. 

43.  Back — Strong,  Short,  Muscled.     In  its  proportion  the 
body  should  be  short  above  and  long  underneath.     This  not 
only  adds  to  its  strength,  but  it  gives  the  legs  free  play  and 
insures  a  balanced  stride.     The  horse  of  this  conformation 
under  the  saddle  will  unite  himself  more  quickly  and  better, 
while  the  same  horse  on  the  line,  or  in  harness  will  have 
a  freer  and  more  balanced  stride.     It  is   the  opinion   of 
many  that  the  roach  back  is  an  evidence  of  strength.     It  is 
the  most  undesirable  feature  in  a  horse  for  the  saddle,  and 
it  is  to  say  the  least,  an  eyesore  in  road  or  in  carriage  horses. 

44.  Loin— Short,  Broad,  Muscled.     It  is  a  defect  of  many 
horses  to  be  light  and  narrow  at  the  juncture  of  the  body 
and  the  hind  quarter.     If  the  loin  is  long  or  slack,  that  is, 
if  the  distance  is  great  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip  bone, 
the  horse  is  likely  to  be  weak  in  the  coupling  and  deficient 
in  action,  and  when  this  is  viewed  from  the  side,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  hind  foot  fails  to  reach  the  point  where  the 
front  foot  left  the  ground.     This  probably  is  due  more  to 
lack  of  muscle  over  the  loin  than  to  any  other  defect. 

45.  Croup — Long,  Muscular.     The  part  included  in  the 
hind  quarters  should  be  critically  examined,  for,  as  it  has 
been  previously  explained,  it  is  in  this  region  that  the  pro- 
pelling power  resides.     The  haunch  or  croup  should  be  long 
and  on  account  of  the  improved  appearance  it  should  be 
comparatively  straight.     When  the  croup  is  long,  it  allows 
a  greater  play  of  the  main  muscles  that  are  located  in  this 
region.     It  will  be  noticed  in  nearly  all  fast  trotters  that  the 
croup  generally  has  this  characteristic.     Length  of  muscle 

as  elsewhere  contributes  to  speed. 


Arabian  stallion,  SHAHWAN,  bred  by  Ali  Pasha,  Sherif,  Egypt,  sold  to  W. 
S.  Blount,  in  1892,  and  taken  by  him  to  England  and  afterwards  sold  to  pres- 
ent owner,  J.  A.  P.  Ramsdell,  Newburg,  N.  Y.  The  photograph  shows  this 
horse  to  be  a  model  of  symmetry,  style  and  quality. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ARAB  HORSE 

1*HOUGH  there  is  some  unreliable  sentiment  associated  with  the  Arab  horse,  yet 
there  is  not  a  vestige  of  doubt  but  that  they  are  of  superior  symmetry  and 
quality.  This  is  perfectly  summed  up  by  Sheik  Abd.-El.-Kader  :  "The  horse 
of  pure  descent  is  distinguished  by  thinness  of  its  lips,  and  the  cartilage  of  the  nose, 
by  the  dilation  of  its  nostrils,  by  the  leanness  of  the  flesh  encircling  the  veins  cf 
the  head,  by  the  graceful  manner  the  neck  is  attached,  by  the  softness  of  its  coat, 
its  mane  and  the  hairs  of  its  tall,  by  its  breadth  of  chest,  the  largeness  of  its  joints 
and  leanness  of  its  extremities.  According  to  the  traditions  of  our  ancestors,  the 
thoroughbred  is  still  better  known  by  its  moral  characteristics  than  its  physical 
peculiarities."  Major  R.  D.  Upton  in  "  Newmarket  and  Arabia"  gives  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Arabian  horse  in  the  following  statement  which  is  true  of  those 
familiar  to  the  author  :  "  The  Arabian  is  a  horse  of  the  highest  courage,  in  stature 
about  14  hands  2  inches,  a  horse  of  length,  power  and  substance,  combined  with  the 
•elastic  and  sinuous-like  movement  of  the  serpent.  He  is  a  very  perfect  animal ; 
he  is  not  exaggerated  —  in  some  parts  large,  meagre  and  diminished  in  others. 
There  is  a  balance  and  harmony  throughout  his  frame  not  seen  in  any  other  horse; 
the  quintessence  of  all  good  qualities  in  a  compact  form." 

The  head  of  the  typical  Arabian  horse  is  exceedingly  straight  and  the  eye 
markedly  full  and  bright.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  feature  of  the  type  is  the 
round  and  extra  well  ribbed  barrel.  In  action  the  movement  of  the  legs  is  very 
peculiar,  being  very  strong  and  elastic.  Though  small,  the  form  is  exceedingly 
smooth  and  symmetrical,  while  the  evidences  of  quality  are  strikingly  shown. 


Photo  by  G.  A.  Tadman. 

Hackney  stallion.  ROYAL  DANEGELT  5785,  owned  by  Sir  Walter  Gilbey, 
Elsenham  Hall,  Essex.  Winner  of  championship  at  London  Hackney  Show, 
1898,  and  at  the  Manchester  show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Eng- 
land in  1897. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HACKNEY  HORSE 

1*HE  HACKNEY  was  established  in  Great  Britain  as  a  b»^ed  to  meet  the  require- 
ments for  a  horse  of  extreme  smoothness,  with  gracefully  curved  outlines, 
having  the  action  necessary  to  show  these  to  the  best  advantage.  The  Leau 
is  light,  neck  muscular  and  curved  but  free  from  heaviness;  shoulders  smooth 
and  laid  weii  back  ;  body  circular,  compact,  short;  hips  smooth;  quarters  plump 
with  muscle,  legs  short  with  tendons  clearly  defined.  Their  action  is  noted  for  its 
straightness  and  height,  and  the  regularity  of  knee  and  hock  movement.  There  is 
a  variation  in  the  types  of  the  breed,  some  showing  more  upstanding  with  abun- 
dance of  quality  and  straighter  lines,  while  others  are  shorter  limbed,  fuller  made 
and  especially  strong  in  action  from  a  carriage  standpoint.  The  secretary  of  the 
Hackney  Horse  Association  of  Great  Britain  has  summed  up  the  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  hackney  which,  as  he  says,  fitted  old  style  and  new  ideal,  in  the  follow- 
ing :  "A  powerfully  built,  short  legged,  big,  broad  horse,  with  an  intelligent  head, 
neat  neck,  strong,  level  back,  powerful  lines  and  as  perfect  shoulders  as  can  be 
produced;  good  feet,  flat  boned  legs,  and  height  of  from  16.2  hands  to  15.3H-  In 
addition  to  showing  a  type  required  for  a  carriage  horse,  the  hackney  must  pos- 
sess as  a  necessary  essential  true  carriage  or  coach  action. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  29 

46.  Thighs —Muscular,  Deep.     The  thigh  should  be  full 
and  plump  with  muscle  which  should  also  extend  as  far 
down  towards  the  hocks  as  possible.     Some  horses  have  this 
feature  so  strongly  developed  that  the  muscle  continues  to 
the  hock  and  gives  the  latter  a  thicker  appearance.     The 
thigh  should  be  long,  making  the  hocks  low,  as  this  con- 
tributes to  a  long  stride. 

47.  Quarters — Heavily  Muscled.     The    quarters    viewed 
from  behind  should  show  a  heavy  mass  of  muscle  between 
the  legs.     Perhaps  there  is  not  another  part  of  the  muscular 
system  that  shows  a  greater  variation  in  development  in  dif- 
ferent horses  than  the  quarters,  for  while  some  will  be  cat- 
harnmed  there  are  others  surprisingly  full  in  this  part,  with 
deep,  hard  muscle. 

48.  Hind  Legs.     The  set  of  the  hind  legs  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  their  liability  to  diseases.     A  leg  that  is  bent  too 
far  forward  is  likely  to  develop  a  curb,  while  one  that  is  too 
straight  is  more  subject  to  fullness  in  the  hock  region,  pre- 
disposing it  to  either  -thoroughpin  or  bog  spavin.     In  look- 
ing from  the  side  at  a  leg  that  has  correct  conformation,  a 
plumb  line  from  the  center  of  the  hip  joint  should  equally 
divide  the  gaskin  and  the  foot.     Dropping  a  plumb  line  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock  it  should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of 
the  cannon.     From   behind,  the  same   line  should  equally 
divide  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot. 

49.  Hocks— Wide,  Straight,  Cle.an.     The  hocks  should  be 
clean  and  broad  and  the  point  should  be  prominent  as  the 
leverage  of  the  most  powerful  muscles  attached  here  depend 
to  a  great  extent  upon  this.     There  should  be  no  gumminess 
about  the  hocks;  the  web  should  be  especially  clean  and  free 
from  all  fleshiness  or  puffs  of  any  kind.     In  running  the  hand 
over  the  hock,  all  the  depressions  that  are  characteristic  of 
the  sound  hock  should  be  easily  felt  and  the  bone  should 
feel  firm  without  the  least  indication  of  unsouudness  of  any 


30  JUDGING   LIGHT  HORSES 

part.     Too  much  attention  can  hardly  be  given  to  this  joint 
as  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  whole  frame. 

50.  Hind  Cannons — Wide,  Short,  Clean.     The  hind  can- 
nons should  be  comparatively  short  as  such  a  conformation 
gives  the  hind  leg  a  longer  stride  while  at  the  same  time 
allowing  the  feet  to  keep  under  the  body  more.     They  should 
also  be  wide  for  that  gives  better  attachment  to  the  tendons 
and  especially  if  the  width  continue  just  below  the  hock  it 
materially  strengthens  that  part.     When  the  support  for  the 
bones  of  the  hock  is  slight  and  narrow  at  the  top  of  the  can- 
non there  is  greater  susceptibility  to  curbs  on  account  of  the 
weakness  of  that  region.     The: fetlock  joint  should  be  of 
normal  size  with  good  width  and  particularly  free  from  any 
puffiness  indicating  windgalls. 

51.  Hind  Pasterns— Sloping,  Strong.     The  slope  of  the 
hind  pasterns  is  not  of  such  importance  as  that  of  the  front 
pastern  for  the  reason  that  It  is  seldom  that  this  part  will  be 
found  too  straight  in  light  horses.     There  is  less  concussion 
for  the  hind  foot  to  stand,  consequently  there  is  less  need  for 
the  pastern  \o  be  very  sloping.     The  pasterns  should  be  of 
medium  size  and  length  so  that  they  may  be  strong.     Free- 
dom from  thick,  coarse  skin  and  hair  is  desirable  for  in  the 
instance  of  such  there  is  less  susceptibility  to  scratches. 

62.  Hind  Feet— Dense,  Rounded.  The  hind  feet  should 
have  the  characteristics  that  have  been  described  in  the 
reference  to  the  desirable  points  of  the  fore  feet.  It  may  be 
noted  in  addition  that  the  hind  feet  are  more  inclined  to 
become  narrow  in  front  and  not  have  the  nicely  rounded  sur- 
face that  is  desirable  in  a  good  foot.  The  sides  of  the  foot 
viewed  from  in  front  very  often  appear  to  have  shrunken 
some,  making  a  ridge  down  the  center  of  the  foot  from  the 
hoof  head  to  the  toe  and  leaving  the  sides  flat.  Narrowness 
at  the  hoof  head  usually  accompanies  this.  The  foot  should 
be  dense  in  structure,  mediut  in  size,  with  strong,  wide  heel 
and  full  front. 


Thoroughbred  stallion,  IMP.  ORMONDE,  owned  by  W.  O'B.  Macdonough, 
Menlo  Park,  Cal.    A  Derby  winner  sired  by  Bend  Or. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  THOROUGHBRED  HORSE 

IT  IS  of  much  assistance  in  understanding  the  type  of  the  thoroughbred  to 
remember  that  they  are  the  oldest  of  the  breeds  of  horses  and  that  they  have 
been  bred  for  many  years  for  a  leading  purpose  and  this  has  generally  been 
running  speed.  To  secure  this  there  had  to  be  associated  with  the  mechanism 
that  produces  it,  unusual  quality  of  structure,  stamina  and  ambition.  The 
running  record  for  a  mile  is  held  by  Salvator,  the  time  being  1  :35~y2  on  a  straight 
track.  The  common  colors  among  the  representatives  of  this  breed  are  brown, 
bay  and  chestnut.  The  distinguishing  features  are  a  refined  appearance, 
especially  clearly  defined  lineaments,  with  length  of  neck,  deep  chest,  short 
upper  line,  long  under  line,  somewhat  straight  croup,  muscular  thighs,  neat 
pasterns,  dense  bone,  firm  muscle  and  active  temperament.  An  inclination  to 
ranginess  in  type  is  required,  with  a  racy  appearance,  usually  resulting  in  a 
horse  standing  16  hands.  Extreme  breeding  for  the  leading  characteristics 
mentioned  makes  it  necessary  to  discountenance  in  the  show  ring  light  bodies 
and  a  general  appearance  which  has  given  rise  to  the  term  "weedy,"  which  is 
also  associated  with  lengthy  pasterns  and  long  legs.  Being  highly  sensitive  in 
organization  t)iey  frequently  reflect  an  erratic  temperament.  Their  purpose  being 
principally  fov  racing,  high  quality  with  endurance  and  spirit  are  cardinal 
qualities,  and  it  is  these  same  features  which  have  made  them  useful  in  the 
production  of  strong  drivers  and  stylish  carriage  and  saddle  horses. 


Photo  by  Schreiber 

Photograph  of  the  American  standard  bred  trotter,  GEO.  WILKES,  2:22; 
founder  of  the  great  Wilkes  family  of  standard  bred  trotters. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   STANDARD  BRED  HORSE 

THE  CHIEF  character!?  tics  of  the  American  standard  bred  horse  is  speed  at  the 
trotting  and  the  pacing  gaits;  the  world's  trotting  record  for  one  mile  being 
held  by  The  Aobott,  the  time  being  2:03^,  while  the  world's  pacing  record  for  the 
same  distance  is  held  by  Star  Pointer,  the  time  being  l:59Vi.  The  type  which  should 
be  encouraged  in  the  show  ring  is  that  which  conduces  towards  this  end,  while  at 
the  same  time  showing  the  characteristics  required  for  endurance,  ambition  and 
the  essential  features  of  a  road  horse.  This  means  the  possession  of  general  feat- 
ures represented  by  an  intelligent  head  and  extremely  light  neck,  low,  deep  chest, 
oblique  shoulder,  long,  muscular  forearm,  strong  knees,  short  cannons,  slim,  slop- 
ing pastern, and  feet  of  good  wearing  quality,  with  round  body  rising  slightly  over  the 
loin;  neat,  long  croup;  thighs  full  with  low  hocks  that  are  strongly  constructed  and 
clearly  defined.  Such  de^ciences  as  are  due  to  undersize,  lack  of  style  and  sub- 
stance should  be  points  for  underscoring  in  the  show  ring.  In  this  connection,  it  is 
of  importance  to  understand  the  difference  that  may  exist  in  representatives  of 
this  breed  when  they  are  undergoing  the  strenuous  work  of  campaigning  or  when 
they  are  retained  only  for  show  and  stud  purposes.  As  many  carriage  horses  have 
their  origin  in  this  breed,  as  well  as  most  of  the  roadsters  and  trotters,  emphasis 
should  be  given  to  the  qualities  which  mean  endurance,  ambition  and  high  finish^ 
It  sometimes  occurs  that  both  pacing  and  trotting  action  compete  in  the  show 
ring  in  a  class  for  roadsters  or  standard  breds.  Both  these  gaits  must  be  recognized 
and  the  preference  given  to  the  one  that  shows  the  most  purity  and  is  the  best  in 
every  particular  of  its  kind.  The  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  high  knee 
and  hock  action  of  the  carriage  horse  and  the  more  reaching  and  easier  folding 
action  of  the  roadster  or  trotter.  See  standard,  page  58. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  31 

fiti 

SCALE  OF   POINTS   FOR    LIGHT   HORSES — GELDING.             &  u 

£ 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Form,  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish 4 

Quality,  bone  clean,  firm,  and  indicating  sufficient  sub- 
stance; tendons  defined;  hair  and  skin  fine 4 

Temperament,  active,  kind  disposition 4 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Head,  lean,  straight I 

Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even;  teeth  sound. .  i 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large i 

Forehead,  broad,  full i 

Ears,  medium  size,  pointed;  well  carried,  and  not  far  apart  i 
Neck,  muscled;   crest,  high;  throatlatch,  fine;  windpipe, 

large i 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulders,  long,  smooth  with  muscle,  oblique,  extending 

into  back 2 

Arms,  short,  thrown  forward , i 

Fore  arms,  muscled,  long,  wide 2 

Knees,  clean,  wide,  straight,  deep,  strongly  supported. ...  2 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight. i 

Pasterns,  strong,  angle  with  ground  45  degrees. . .    .....  3 

Feet,  medium,  even  size;  straight;  horn  dense;  frog  large, 

elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide 6 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee, 
cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicu- 
lar line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  should 
fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints  and 

back  of  hoof 4 

BODY: 

Withers,  muscled  and  well  finished  at  top i 

Chest,  deep,  low,  large  girth 2 

Ribs,  long,  sprung,  close 2 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  muscled 2 

Loin,  wide,  short,  thick 2 

Underline,  long;  flank  let  down i 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level 2 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 2 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried I 

Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angled 2 

Quarters,  heavily  muscled,  deep 2 

Qaskin  or  Lower  Thighs,  long,  wide,  muscular 2 

Hocks,  clearly  defined,  wide,  straight 5 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight I 

Pasterns,  strong,  sloping 9 


32  JUDGING   HEAVY   HORSES 

Feet,  medium,  even  size;  straight;  horn  dense,  frog  large, 
elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high 4 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  per- 
pendicular line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the 
center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle; 
and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 

should  run  paraMel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 4 

ACTION: 

Walk,  elastic,  quick,  balanced 5 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high . . , 15 

Total loo 

III.      JUDGING   HEAVY   HORSES. 

53.  Consideration   of    Condition.      In   examining    draft 
horses  it  is  well  to  remember  that  defects  that  are  often 
apparent  to  the  eye  in  the  instance  of  light  horses,  require 
more  careful  observation  to  detect  them  in   heavy  horses. 
The  defects  are  usually  harder  to  see  owing  to  the  degree,  to 
which  the  horses  may  be  pampered.     Draft  horsey  may  be 
fed  to  such  a  high  condition  and  in  this  way  so  ' '  veneered ' ' 
that  it  becomes  a  very  hard  matter  to  detect  the  structural 
defects.     A  horse  in  lean  serviceable  condition  will  often 
show  many  defects  especially  in  the  body  that  a  thick  cover- 
ing of  fat  would  hide.     In  judging  draft  horses  it  is  neces- 
sary to  observe  the  greatest  precaution  so  as  not  to  mistake 
such  padding  with  fat  for  development  of  muscle. 

/.     General  Examination. 

As  in  the  light  horse  the  most  important  matters  to  notice 
in  the  general  examination  are  the  form,  quality  and  action 
of  the  horse  under  inspection. 

54.  Form— Massive,   Broad,    Deep.      In  form  the  draft 
horse  should  be  broad,  square,  close  to  the  ground  and  well 
proportioned.     It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  power  rather 
than  speed  should  be  the  outcome  of  the  effort  of  a  draft 
horse.     It  is  evident  that  the  size  of  the  muscles  has  more  to 
do  with  power,  while  the  length  of  the  muscle  is  indicative 
principally  of  speed.     There  is  a  combination  of  power  and 


French  Coach  Stallion,  PALADIX  1968,  by  Perfection.Owned  by  Dunham, 
Fletcher  &  Coleman,   Wayne,   111. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  1HE  FRUNCH  COACH  HORSE 

l~ ARGELY  through  the  encouragement  and  direction  of  the  French  government 
^  the  French  coach  horse  has  been  moulded  into  a  type  that  has  as  its  leading 
characteristic  extreme  smoothness,  symmetry,  a  grace  in  movement  with  strong 
action  approaching  closely  to  that  required  for  the  carriage  horse.  The  head 
should  be  intelligent  looking,  the  neck  clearly  outlined  and  gracefully  carried,  the 
body  snugly  ribbed  and  quarters  deep  and  muscular.  To  be  striking  in  appearance, 
upstanding  and  high  headed  are  features  which  have  a  paramount  value  in  this 
type,  and  in  addition  there  should  be  every  evidence  of  quality  in  all  structures. 
The  common  colors  are  bay,  brown  and  black,  and  usually  these  are  solid  and  not 
broken.  Uniformity  is  desirable  in  any  breed,  so  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  judge 
to  adopt  a  certain  type  as  that  which  he  prefers,  and  then  be  consistent  in  the 
awards  which  follow.  The  highest  pattern  of  a  coach  horse  without  coarseness  or 
lack  of  action  should  be  the  standard  carried  in  mind.  When  at  rest  it  may  be 
said  that  for  true  symmetry,  fullness  and  graceful  curves  the  highest  type  of  the 
French  coach  horse  is  almost  an  idealistic  pattern  of  what  is  required  r"  ?.i,  repre- 
sentative of  this  class. 


German  coach  stallion  imported  SOCRATES,  owned  by  Mr.  John  Parrott, 
San  Francisco,  California.  At  the  San  Francisco  Horse  Show  this  stallion 
was  first  prize  winner  in  the  stallion  class  for  coachers. 

A  Cleveland  Bay  coach  stallion,  first  prize  winner  at  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  Show  in  1899. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  GERMAN  COACH  HORSE 

|^HE  GERMAN  coach  horse  is  representative  of  the  larger  breeds  coming  within 
the  coach  class.  The  type  of  the  best  carries  with  it  the  smoothness  and  the 
full  development  of  muscular  regions  which  give  powerful  movement  and  at  the 
same  time  fullness  of  form  Substance,  meaning  thereby  the  possession  of  a  strong 
frame,  shown  especially  in  the  bone  below  the  kuee,  is  one  of  the  features  which 
has  a  pre-eminent  place  in  tho  qualities  desired  by  the  adherents  of  the  breed. 
Soundness  of  joints  and  cleanness  of  limb  are  qualities  which  must  be  secured  in 
horses  suitable  for  the  purpose  of  these,  and  the  show  ring  inspection  should  be 
directed  clearly  towards  discountenancing  undue  roughness  of  structure,  loose- 
ness of  joints.  The  colors  are  bay,  brown  and  black,  and  these  are  rarely  broken 
by  splashes  or  other  striking  markings. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   CLEVELAND  BAY  HORSE 

*|HJIS  BREED,  taking  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  England,  has  for  its 
characteristic  color  different  shades  of  bay  with  black  points.  Being  bred  for 
the  heaviest  carriage  work,  a  representative  of  this  breed  should  stand  sixteen 
hands  high,  somewhat  large  in  size,  and  with  more  evidence  of  power  than  most 
other  breeds  of  light  horses.  While  possessing  substance  and  symmetry,  there 
should  not  be  any  deficiencies  in  evidence  such  as  rough  joints,  coarse  bone  and 
lack  of  action  for  carriage  purposes.  Their  size,  power  and  evenness  of  disposition 
adapt  them  for  general  work  on  light  farms  or  for  heavy  carriage  work  in  the  cities 
As  the  sphere  of  this  breed  has  not  demanded  the  action  called  for  in  the  lighter 
coach  breeds,  true  coach  action  has  not  been  commonly  associated  with  its  mem- 
bers, but,  more  or  less,  the  critical  judge  should  look  for  it  in  the  show  ring  as  in  all 
coach  classes. 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  33 

speed  which  is  desirable  to  secure  in  the  draft  horse  but  as 
in  all  things  opposed  to  each  other  it  is  impossible  to  secure 
the  highest  development  of  both  in  the  same  individual.  It 
has  been  stated  by  a  writer  on  this  subject*  that  in  the 
instance  of  animals  of  short  bones,  slight  angularity  and 
short  muscles,  the  conditions  are  most  favorable  for  drawing 
heavy  loads,  and  animals  with  long  bones,  long  muscles  and 
slightly  angular  joints  are  especially  adapted  for  speed. 

55.  Advantage  of  Weight.  In  considering  the  form, 
weight  should  be  given  a  high  valuation,  for  a  horse  that 
does  not  weigh  at  least  1,500  pounds  should  not  be  consid- 
ered a  draft  horse.  In  addition,  this  weight  must  be  the 
outcome  of  strong  bone,  heavy  muscles  and  large  proportions 
and  not  have  its  origin  in  excessive  fatness.  As  to  the 
importance  of  weight  it  may  be  illustrated  best  by  citing  what 
is  said  to  be  the  first  experience  that  inventors  had  with  the 
locomotive.  When  this  was  being  perfected  before  its  intro- 
duction as  a  means  of  transportation,  it  is  stated  that  a  small 
model  of  a  locomotive  with  the  necessary  track  arrangement 
was  used  by  those  desiring  to  bring  it  into  practical  use.  It 
was  found  in  the  model  that  the  wheels  would  not  adhere  to 
the  track  but  would  spin  around  and  waste  the  power.  Con- 
siderable study  was  given  to  the  best  means  of  overcoming 
this  difficulty.  It  was  thought  that  the  wheels  should  have 
cogs  and  the  track  furnished  in  the  same  way  but  a  better 
plan  was  happened  upon  by  accident.  The  inventor  having 
a  small  load  in  form  of  bags  to  take  over  the  track,  instead  of 
putting  it  in  the  car  of  the  model  train  threw  them  across  the 
locomotive  and  when  steam  was  generated  the  t  rain  started 
without  any  of  the  difficulties  that  had  been  before  observed. 
He  found  through  this  that  the  locomotive  to  exert  its  power 
to  the  best  advantage  should  have  a  proportionate  weight 
and  it  ultimately  assisted  in  the  perfection  of  the  locomotive. 
The  same  principle  attached  itself  to  the  draft  horse  as  a 


*Smith,  Physiology  of  Domestic  Animals,  page  756 


34  JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES 

motor.  It  has  been  further  illustrated  in  this  way — a  driver 
with  a  rather  light  horse  was  trying  to  take  a  carload  of 
grain  up  a  hill,  the  horse  tried  several  times  to  accomplish 
it  but  would  only  get  partly  up  the  hill  when  the  load  would 
draw  him  back.  After  studying  the  matter  the  driver  took 
some  bags  out  of  the  cart  and  put  them  on  the  horse  and 
accomplished  his  object.  The  same  principle  is  applied  as 
in  the  instance  of  the  locomotive.  He  added  just  so  much 
to  the  weight  of  the  horse  and  this  enabled  him  to  overcome 
in  a  degree  the  weight  of  the  load.  The  factor  of  weight  is 
not  only  of  value  in  matter  of  work  but  this  is  also  observ- 
able as  an  influence  in  the  general  market. 

56.  Market  Value  ^f  Weight.  Arranging  the  sales  re- 
ported by  a  leading  firm  of  Chicago,  during  1893,  according 
to  the  weight  of  the  horses  sold,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
variation  in  price  is  in  accordance  with  the  weight  of  the 
horse,  as  follows : 

AVERAGE  AVERAGE 

WEIGHT.  PRICE. 

1400  II55-87 

1450  I59-J5 

1500  169.15 

1550  176  56 

1600  176  62 

1650  208.64 

1700  212.89 

1750  236.14 

1800  258.33 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  constant  increase  in  the 
prices  from  the  lighter  to  the  heavier  weight  and  this  factor  of 
weight  seems  to  be  so  marked  as  to  dominate  all  other  merits. 
The  weight  increasing  from  1,400  to  1,800  pounds  advanced 
the  price  about  $100,  which  means,  that  the  added  weight 
within  this  range  was  worth  about  25  cents  per  pound  on 
the  general  market. 

E7.  Quality  with  Substance  Necessary  for  Durability.  Of 
all  desirable  features  to  be  sought  in  a  draft  horse  that  of 
strong,  clean  and  firm  bone  is  one  of  the  most  important. 


Imported  Trakehnor  coach  stallion  VIHGIL.  Black  horse  with  brown 
muzzle,  16  hands  high.  Foaled  1887.  Weight  1,275  pounds.  Bred  by  W.  Ger- 
lach,  Walterkehmen,  Prussia.  Imported  by  Jacob  Heyl,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis- 
consin, in  1890. 

Russian  Orloff  stallion  WZMAKH,  record  2:26^.  Gray  horse,  16  hands 
high.  Foaled  1887,  Bred  by  S.  DeBeauvais.  Rogojkinow,  Gouvernement 
Pensa,  District  of  Mokshansk,  Russia.  Imported  by  Jacob  Heyl,  of  Mil- 
waukee, Wisconsin,  1892. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TRAKEHNER  COACH  HORSE 

I*HIS  BREED  of  coach  horses,  developed  under  the  patronage  of  the  Prussian 
government,  includes  among  its  representatives  horses  that  for  general  use 
exhibit  a  high  standard  of  excellence.  They  possess  the  substance  required  In  a 
weight  pulling  coach  horse  and  with  it  much  of  the  quality  which  reflects  a  high 
order  of  breeding.  The  outline  of  the  best  type  illustrates  a  high  order  of  perfec- 
tion for  a  coach  horse  ;  while  the  advantage  of  large  size  with  good  bone  adds 
greatly  to  their  weight  pulling  qualities.  In  color  these  horses  are  with  rare 
exception  bright  bays  with  few  if  any  markings.  Though  typical  coach  action  has 
not  been  made  a  feature  of  their  breeding,  as  In  the  instance  of  some  of  the  other 
breeds  of  coach  horses,  yet  it  is  a  characteristic  which  should  be  in  evidence  in  any 
show  ring  containing  a  display  of  this  class. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ORLOFF  TROTTER 

*PHE  ORLOFF  trotter,  being  the  national  horse  of  Russia,  has  been  designed 
largely  by  government  direction  to  meet  the  many  demands  which  are  made 
upon  a  horse  of  general  utility.  They  should  be  expected  to  show  the 
quality  which  would  be  required  in  any  light  horse  frequently  subjected  to 
severe  tests  of  endurance  and  strength  of  structure.  The  type  is  one  smoothly 
moulded  with  muscle,  strong  in  all  its  parts  and  yet  not  unduly  coarse,  while  at  the 
same  time  not  being  so  finely  constructed  as  to  detract  any  from  its  general  strength. 
Being  vigorous,  they  possess  an  abundance  of  ambition,  and  associated  with  this 
there  is  a  compactness  and  general  unity  of  structure  which  makes  them  good 
wearers  under  work.  It  is  not  expected  that  a  horse  of  this  type  would  have  the 
ability  to  trot  as  fast  as  one  showing  a  higher  and  more  special  construction,  but  it 
is  proper  to  look  for  that  type  which  would  be  adapted  for  covering  long  distances 
with  the  least  fatigue. 


Champion  Shetland  pony  PRINCE  OF  WALES,  at  nine  years  of  age,  height 
35)  inches.  This  stallion  has  won  a  championship  at  every  show  exhibited 
since  his  two-year-old  form,  having  won  over  12  consecutive  championship 
prizes.  Owned  by  Chas.  E.  Bunn,  Peoria,  Illinois.  See  Shetland  Standard 
page  59. 

A  typical  Welsh  pony. 


STANDARD   FOR  PONY 

BEFORE  the  establishment  of  the  Hackney  Horse  Society  in  1883,  the  dividing 
line  between  the  horse  and  the  pony  in  England  was  vague  and  undefined.  It 
was  then  found  necessary  to  distinguish  clearly  between  horses  and  ponies,  and 
accordingly  all  animals  measuring  fourteen  hands  or  under  were  designated 
'ponies  "  and  registered  in  a  separate  part  of  the  Stud  Book.  This  record  of  height 
with  other  particulars  as  to  breeding,  etc.,  serves  to  direct  breeders  in  their  choice 
of  sires  and  dams.  The  standard  of  height  established  by  the  Hackney  Horse  Soci- 
ety was  accepted  and  officially  recognized  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  in  1889 
when  the  prize  list  for  the  Windsor  Show  contained  pony  classes  for  animals  not 
exceeding  14  hands.  The  altered  Polo  rule  which  fixes  the  limit  of  height  at  14 
hands  2  inches  may  be  productive  of  some  little  confusion;  but  for  all  other  pur- 
poses 14  hands  is  the  recognized  maximum  height  of  a  pony.  Prior  to  1883  small 
horses  were  called  indifferently  galloways,  hobbies,  cobs  or  ponies,  irrespective  of 
their  height.— Ponies  Past  and  Present,  by  Sir  Walter  Gilbcy,  Bart. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  WELSH  PONY 

FOR  THE  information  of  those  interested  in  this  breed,  the  fallowing  descrip- 
tions, furnished  to  the  Polo  Pony  Society  for  their  stud  book  (Vol.  V.)  by  the 
local  committees,  may  be  quoted  :  "HEIGHT— Not  to  exceed  13.2  hands.  COLOR  — 
Bay  or  brown  preferred;  grey  or  black  allowable;  but  dun,  chestnut  or  broken 
color  considered  objectionable.  ACTION  — Best  described  as  that  of  the  hunter; 
low  'dairy-cutting'  action  to  be  avoided.  The  pony  should  move  quickly  and 
actively,  stepping  out  well  from  the  shoulder,  at  the  same  time  flexing  the  hocks 
and  bringing  the  hind  legs  well  under  the  body  when  going.  GENERAL  CHARACTER 

—  The  pony  should  show  good  pony  character  and  evidence  of  robust  constitution, 
with  the  unmistakable  appearance  of  hardiness  peculiar  to  mountain  ponies,  and 
at  the  same  time  have  a  lively  appearance.    HEAD  — Should  be  small,  well  chiseled 
in  its  outline  and  well  set  on;  forehead  broad,  tapering  toward  nose.    NOSTRILS  — 
Large  and  expanding.    EYES— Bright,  mild,  intelligent  and  prominent.    EARS  — 
Neatly  set,  well  formed  and  small.    THROAT  AND  JAWS  — Fine,  showing  no  signs  of 
coarseness  or  throatiness.    NECK  — Of  proportionate  length;   strong  but  not  too 
heavy  with  a  moderate  crest  in  the  case  of  the  stallion.    SHOULDERS  —  Good  should- 
ers most  important;  should  be  well  laid  back  and  sloping,  but  not  too  fine  at  the 
withers,  not  loaded  at  the  points.    The  pony  should  have  a  good,  long  shoulder 
blade.    BACK  AND  LOINS  — Strong  and  well  covered  with  muscle.    HINDQUARTERS 

—  Long,  and  tail  well  carried,  as  much  like  the  Arab  as  possible,  springing  well  from 
the  top  of  the  back.    HOCKS— Well  let  down,  clean  cut,  with  plenty  of  bone  between 
the  J9int;  they  should  not  be  'sickled'  or  'cow-hocked.'    FORELEGS  — Well  plnced; 
not  tied  in  any  way  at  the  elbows;  good  muscular  arm.  short  from  the  knee  to  the 
fetlock  joints;  flat  bone;  pasterns  sloping  but  not  too  long;  feet  well  developed  and 
open  at  the  heel;  hoof  sound  and  hard."— Ponieh  Past  and  Present.  Sir  Walter  Gi 
Bart. 


GENERAL   EXAMINATION  35 

The  leg  below  the  cannon  should  be  flat,  the  bone  should 
feel  firm  and  the  tendons  should  stand  out  distinctly  from 
the  bone.  There  should  be  such  a  feeling  about  the  bone  of 
the  legs  as  to  warrant  the  assumption  that  it  is  of  a  fine,  firm 
texture.  If  you  will  compare  the  texture  of  a  piece  of  hick- 
ory wood  with  that  of  tamarac  or  larch,  which  differ  mark- 
edly in  their  relative  strength,  the  difference  which  exists  in 
the  bone  of  horses  will  be  made  clear.  Although  a  horse  has 
never  been  known  to  break  its  leg  in  this  region  by  severe 
exertion  yet  the  importance  of  strength  of  bone  in  these  parts 
is  of  high  value,  not  simply  because  of  its  wearing  quality  but 
also  largely  for  what  it  indicates.  It  will  be  found  that  in  the 
instance  of  a  horse  that  has  what  is  generally  known  as  flat, 
clean  bone  with  hard  defined  joints,  its  endurance  is  double 
that  of  a  horse  showing  the  opposite  quality.  In  those 
breeds  which  have  hair  on  their  legs  or  *  *  feather  "  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  the  quality  of  the  hair  is  an  index  to  the 
nature  of  the  bone.  Coarse,  porous  bone,  and  coarse  skin  are 
associated  and  the  latter  gives  rise  to  coarse  hair;  while  on 
the  other  hand  fine,  silky  hair  is  accepted  as  an  indication 
that  the  bone  is  of  close  and  hard  texture.  The  mistake  some- 
times made  of  considering  small  bone  a  characteristic  of 
quality  should  be  guarded  against  as  this  is  a  very  detri- 
mental feature  in  a  draft  horse.  In  heavy  horses  the  impor- 
tant consideration  is  to  secure  as  close  a  combination  as  pos- 
sible of  quality  with  substance  and  weight. 

58.  Action — Straight,  Regular.  The  common  working 
pace  of  the  draft  horse  is  the  walk  and  for  this  reason  it 
deserves  prominence.  In  it's  sphere  the  draft  horse  is  only 
at  times  urged  beyond  a  walk  so  that  it  becomes  a  very 
important  attribute  of  this  horse  to  be  a  good  walker.  In 
criticising  the  walk  of  a  draft  horse,  the  action  should  be 
noted  from  three  points  of  view — before,  behind  and  from  the 
side.  In  approaching,  the  horse  should  carry  his  head  high 
and  the  stride  should  be  regular.  The  feet  should  be  lifted 


36  JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES 

clear  of  the  ground  and  placed  down  evenly  as  if  in  delibera- 
tion. From  the  side  it  may  be  noted  that  if  the  hind  and 
fore  legs  work  in  unison.  Horses  with  short  bones  and  long 
underlines  present  the  best  view  from  the  side  while  in  action 
but  on  the  other  hand  those  with  long  backs  and  weak  loins 
usually  drag  their  legs  in  a  slovenly  way.  Viewed  from 
behind  the  action  of  the  hock  should  be  carefully  noted. 
The  flexion  in  this  region  should  be  free  and  straight.  It 
is  a  common  weakness  of  the  hocks  to  be  turned  outward 
when  raised,  but  more  frequently  the  hocks  are  bent  in  too 
much  and  the  feet  thrown  out  of  line.  As  a  rule  the  stride 
should  not  be  too  long  but  well  balanced  with  a  movement 
quick  and  elastic. 

59.  Trotting  Action.     The  ability  to  trot  well  is  not  gen- 
erally considered  a  valuable  attribute  for  a  draft  horse,  as  it 
is  claimed  that  to  walk  well  is  a  much  more  useful  achieve- 
ment.    Good  trotting  action,  however,  is  not  only  valuable 
in  itself  but  it  also  brings  with  it  many  other  qualities  such 
as  activity,  style,  balance  of  conformation  and  other  features 
that  are  desirable  in  any  class  of  horses.     The  draft  horse  in 
trotting  should  go  level,  straight  and  regular,  for  any  devia- 
tion from  these  qualities  are  usually  evidences  of  unsound- 
ness  or  the  absence  of  a  balanced  conformation.     The  legs, 
both  fore  and  hind,  should  flex  freely  at  the  hocks  and  knees, 
for  a  rigidness  of  movement  of  these  is  indicative  of  defects 
of  some  kind.     A  stilted  hock  action  is  much  too  common 
in  draft  horses  and  is  very  often  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hock 
is  not  properly  set  as  may  be  observed  in  all  hind  legs  that 
are  too  straight.     Such  are  usually  lacking  in  reach  and 
power. 

//.  Structural  Examination. 

60.  Head — Lean,  Medium  Size.     Coarseness  of  the  head 
is  a  prevalent  fault.     While  it  should  be  of  only  medium 
size  there  should  be  sufficient  breadth  between  the  eyes  and 
the  face  lines  should  be  clearly  defined  with  the  total  length 


Photo   from  Horse   Show   Montlhly. 

Saddle  stallion  MONTE  CRISTO,  JR.,  owned  by  J.  T.  Crenshaw,  Scott  Sta- 
tion, Ky.     Winner  of  numerous  prizes  at  leading  horse  shows. 


Morgan  horse,  HILLSIDE,  bred  by  Morgan  Horse  Company,  Carpenters- 
ville.  111.  HILLSIDE  and  his  full  brother  sold  during  the  depressed  times  of 
the  horse  industry  for  81,600.  He  was  first  at  the  Illinois  State  Fair  in  1894, 
18<t.">.  and  also  first  prize  winner  at  the  Chicago  Horse  Show  in  1894. 


Standard  bred  trotting  stallion,  AL.LEKTON,  when  a  three  year  old  with 
a  record  of  2:12,  formerly  champion  trotting  stallion,  and  within  recent 
years  the  leading  sire  of  standard  trotters.  Sired  by  Jay  Bird  5060,  and 
owned  by  C.  W.  Williams,  Galesburg,  111. 


Amerle  m  standard  bred  stallion  ALT.ERTON,  2:W%.  Rcprod^ed  from  a 
photograph  taken  when  14  years  old.  A  comparison  of  this  with  the  illustra- 
tion shown  above,  which  was  taken  when  three  years  old,  indicates  the 
development  which  takes  place  in  a  stallion  as  he  advances  in  years.  A 
comparison  will  also  add  to  the  prestige  of  this  horse,  for  it  shows  how  well 
preserved  in  form  he  is,  without  any  blemishes,  after  having  passed  through 
severe  campaigning. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  ^ 

of  the  head  proportionate  to  the  rest  of  the  body,  It  should 
be  well  set  on  the  neck  and  carried  gracefully.  The  nostrils 
should  be  large  and  of  a  healthy  color.  A  n  examination  of 
the  mouth,  though  usually  made  to  estimate  the  age,  should 
include  inspection  for  the  most  frequent  defects  in  this  region 
which,  in  heavy  horses  are  parrot  mouth  or  overshot  mouth 
and  troubles  of  the  teeth.  The  eye  should  be  bright,  full 
and  mild  with  no  appearance  of  film  to  interfere  with  the 
vision.  In  looking  at  the  eye  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the 
natural  shape  of  the  pupil  is  elliptical,  while  a  spherical 
form  indicates  blindness  or  impaired  vision.  Haziness  of 
the  eye,  one  being  smaller  than  the  other  or  a  wrinkled 
eyelid  are  indications  of  ophthalmia. 

61.  Neck — Strong,  Lengthy.     The  neck  should  have  the 
appearance  of  being  strong  and  massive  and  also  of  sufficient 
length  and  well  arched.     Undue  length  of  neck  especially 
in  draft  horses  is  so  rare  that  it  may  be  considered  unknown. 

62.  Shoulders  —  Sloping,  Muscular.     While  a  decidedly 
upright  shoulder  may  give  increased  power  in  the  shafts,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  it  may  be  in  an  extreme  position 
in  this  respect,  and  if  so  it  forces  the  step  to  be  short  and 
slow.     It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  moderately  oblique  shoulder 
favors  a  long,  quick  step  and  at  the  same  time  it  detracts 
but  little  from  the  power.    When  the  shoulder  is  very  upright 
the  concussion  upon  the  feet  is  increased  and  hence  this  con- 
formation is  generally  associated  with  sidebones  and  ring- 
bones.    Activity  and  elasticity  of  movement,  especially  in 
the  walk  is  a  desirable  feature  of  the  heavy  horse  and  such  is 
very  seldom  found  in  connection  with  an  upright  shoulder. 

63.  Chest— Deep,  Full.     The  chest  should  be  deep  and 
comparatively  broad  giving  great  volume  and  lung  room. 
It  is  best  estimated  by  the  girth,  which  is  the  body's  circum- 
ference behind  the  fore  legs.     Horses  that  are  slack  in  that 
part,   are  generally  of  weak  constitution  without  average 
staying  power.     Exceptional   width   in  the  chest   usually 


38  JUDGING   HEAVY   HORSES 

results  in  rolling  and  pitching  in  action,  but  if  the  shoulder 
blades  fit  snug  to  the  body  this  is  not  generally  noticeable. 

64.  Arms — Sloping.    The  humerus  or  bone  that  forms  the 
arm  should  be  short  and  sloping  so  as  to  bring  the  fore  legs 
properly  under  the  body.     In  addition  it  should  be  well  cov- 
ered with  muscle. 

65.  Fore  Legs — Wide,  Defined,  Fore  Arm   Large.     The 
fore  arm  should  be  large  and  its  prominence  should  be  due 
to  a  large  bunch  of  muscle  which  gives  the  horse  complete 
control  of  his  legs.     It  is  an  especially  valuable  feature  to 
notice  in  a  draft  horse  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  as  easily 
padded  with  fat  as  the  rest  of  the  body. 

66.  Knees — Broad,  Defined.     A  broad,  clean  knee  is  im- 
portant and  there  should  not  be  the  least  shrinkage  in  the 
breadth  below  it.     The  extremities  should  be  lean  and  the 
tendons  should  stand  out  prominently  from  the  rest  of  the 
leg.     In  Clydesdales  and  Shires  there  should  be  a  fringe  of 
fine,  silky  hair  starting  from  behind  the  knee  and  running 
to  the  fetlock  and  this  should  spring  from  the  edge  of  the 
leg.     It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  this  "feather"   very 
often  gives  one  a  false  impression  of  the  width  of  the  leg 
below  the  knee.     Horses  that  are  coarse  about  the  fetlocks 
with  matted,  wiry  hair  in  this  region  are  as  a  rule  more  sub- 
ject to  the  skin  diseases  characteristic  of  these  regions. 

67.  Fetlocks — Clean,  Wide.    This  joint  should  be  clearly 
defined  without  any  fullness,  due  to  windgalls.     In  addition 
it  should  be  wide  so  as  to  give  favorable  attachment  to  the 
strong  tendons  that  pass  this  point. 

68.  Pasterns— Sloping,  Springy.     The  pastern  of  the  draft 
horse  should  be  medium  in  length  and  it  should  be  critically 
examined  especially  in  regard  to  its  slope,  for  this  has  much 
to  do  with  the  durability  of  the  horse's  feet  and  also  has  an 
effect  on  the  animal's  action.     A  glance  at  the  skeleton  in 
this  region  will  show  that  there  are  four  small  bones  below 
the  fetlock  joint.     The  first  one  below  this  joint  is  the  one 


A  yearling  Hackney  filly,  winner  of  numerous  prizes  in  the  leading 
British  show  rings. 

A  thoroughbred  yearling,  DISGUISE  II,  owned  by  James  R.  Keene.  This 
American  bred  horse  finished  third  in  the  Derby,  and  afterwards  beat  the 
winner  of  the  race,  the  Prince  of  Wales'  Diamond  Jubilee. 


A  group  of  French  Coach  yearling  fillies  at  Oaklawn  Stock  Farm,  ine 
property  of  Messrs.  Dunham,  Fletcher  &  Coleman,  Wayne,  111.  These  fillies 
were  sired  by  Perfection  and  they  show  the  form  and  quality  desired  in 
coach  fillies  of  this  age. 


NANCY  HANKS  2:04  and  foal  by  ARION  2:07%.  This  foal  shows  the  quali- 
ties desired  in  a  trotting  breed  weanling,  while  the  mare  in  form  illustrates 
a  very  desirable  type  of  standard  bred  brood  mare. 


Photo  by  Scott,  of  Carlisle. 

An  old  fashioned  hunting  group,  with  a  hunter  of  remarkable  qualities 
in  the  background.  This  is  a  reproduction  of  a  photograph  taken  from 
Field  and  Fern,  and  is  entitled  "A  Glimpse  of  Knockhill,  1864."  The  hunter 
shown  illustrates  a  type  which  is  usually  remarkable  for  staying  power. 
The  head  alone  reflects  remarkable  qualities  as  may  be  noted  by  critical 
inspection.  The  form  as  a  whole  is  that  of  a  strongly  built,  stoutly  made 
hunter,  with  unusual  quality.  It  is  this  type  without  any  waste  weight 
that  usually  ranks  first  in  stamina. 


The  illustration  on  the  right  hand  shows  a  deficient  fore  leg  for  a  draft 
horse,  as  it  lacks  muscle,  with  straight,  coarse  pastern  and  shelly  feet.  The 
shoulder  is  also  too  straight  and  the  legs  very  deficient  in  quality,  as  the  hair 
is  coarse  and  wiry,  which  may  be  noted  by  comparison  with  the  one  on  the 
left.  The  latter  shows  good  feet,  sloping  pasterns,  strongly  supported  knee, 
rather  weak  fore  arm,  and  moderately  sloping  shoulder. 


Clydesdale  gelding  SENSATION.  In  1896  this  horse  was  champion  gelding 
of  Scotland  and  then  weighed  2184  pounds  when  shown  by  Mr.  William  Clark 
of  Netherlea,  Scotland,who  paid  $600  for  him.  After  working  during  the  inter- 
vening time  on  the  streets  of  Liverpool,  he  was  shown  at  Chicago  at  the 
International  Exppsition  in  December,  1900,  where  he  won  a  $100  special  for  the 
best  aged  gelding  in  harness.  Photo  taken  December,  1900.  This  horse  was 
bred  by  Mr,  John  Crawford,  of  Scotland  and  he  was  sired  by  the  Darnlev 
horse  Gartsherrie  (2800). 


The  imported  English  Shire  stallion.  ROCKINGHAM  THE  SECOND.  Color, 
dark  chestnut;  weight,  2,290  Ibs.  Property  of  Alexander  Galbraith  &  Son, 
Janesville,  Wis. 


Belgian  Stallion,  FRISCO  DE  MONTE  1321  (22252)  foaled  April  8, 1000;  winner 
of  many  1st  prizes  in  Belgium,  and  1st  International,  Chicago,  1903.  Winner 
of  special  prizes  (two  firsts)  offered  by  the  Belgian  Societies  of  Belgium 
and  America.  Owned  by  Dunham,  Fletcher  &  Coleman,  Wayne,  111. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  39 

that  forms  the  pastern  and  below  this  there  are  two  others 
continuing  the  slope  of  the  paste.n;  while  the  fourth  is 
located  at  the  juncture  of  the  two  just  mentioned.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  it  is  desirable  for  the  pastern  bone  to  slope  at  least 
forty-five  degrees,  for  if  it  is  straighter  than  this,  the  concus- 
sion given  to  the  foot  is  not  dissipated  over  all  the  structures 
as  it  should  be.  A  horse  putting  the  foot  down  (except 
when  severely  taxed  in  draft  and  then  the  toe  reaches  the 
ground  first)  receives  the  concussion  on  the  frog  which  trans- 
mits it  to  the  tendinous  tissue  padding  the  heel  of  the  foot. 
From  there  it  passes  to  the  bones  of  the  foot  apparently 
about  the  region  of  the  first  joint  made  by  the  three  bones, 
the  navicular,  coffin  and  ,the  coronary,  which  are  admirably 
arranged  in  the  leg  having  a  sloping  pastern  to  each  receive 
a  share  of  the  buffeting.  If  the  pastern  is  sloping  it  would 
seem  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  concussion  is  likely  to 
reach  the  pastern  bone  and  this  seemingly  would  be  com- 
pletely spent  before  the  fetlock  joint  would  be  reached.  This 
joint  when  the  pastern  slopes  properly,  swings  in  a  sling  of 
ligaments  and  tendons  and  consequently  when  the  parts 
below  slope  considerably,  it  is  much  more  effective  in  pro- 
tecting the  bones  of  the  leg  from  the  irritation  that  arises 
from  concussion.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  navicular  disease, 
r>idebones  and  ringbones,  are  most  frequently  associated 
with  straight  pasterns.  The  concussion  from  the  foot  in  the 
straight  pastern  falls  most  severely  on  the  first  joint  formed 
by  the  navicular,  coffin  and  coronary  bones  and  consequently 
it  is  about  this  region  that  these  various  bone  diseases  are 
located.  Concussion  produces  irritation,  which  continued 
results  in  inflammation  followed  by  bony  deposits.  To  give 
the  pastern  the  proper  springiness,  a  proportionate  length 
should  be  associated  with  the  slope.  The  slope  however,  is 
of  still  more  importance  than  length  or  size.  The  features 
of  the  joints  at  both  ends  should  be  clearly  defined,  showing 


4:0  JUDGING    HEAVY    HORSES 

that  they  are  completely  free  from  puffiness,  sidebones  or 
other  diseases  or  blemishes. 

It  may  be  stated  here  that  pasterns  that  are  upright  in  a 
mature  horse  generally  become  more  so  with  age  and  the 
action  depreciates  in  proportion.  Such  a  conformation  gives 
but  slight  command  of  the  feet  and  the  horse  that  has  it 
literally  forces  the  feet  into  the  ground  or  batters  them  on 
the  hard  pavement  of  the  city  streets. 

69.  Feet — Large,  Dense,  Concave  Sole,  Large  Frog0 
Diseases  and  defects  of  the  foot  are  exceedingly  prevalent 
among  heavy  horses.  As  sound  feet  are  rather  the  excep- 
tion, and  this  is  an  important  structure,  considerable 
attention  should  be  directed  to  it.  The  foot  is  made  up  of 
three  bones.  These  are  covered  by  a  highly  sensitive  secret- 
ing layer.  The  external  surface  is  made  up  of  the  wall,  sole 
and  frog.  In  shape  the  proper  foot  is  somewhat  irregular 
as  the  outer  quarter  running  back  to  the  sole  curves  consid- 
erably outward,  while  the  inner  quarter  is  straighter.  This 
shape  it  will  be  easily  seen  not  only  gives  a  strong  hold 
upon  the  ground,  but  it  also  decreases  the  possibility  of  the 
inner  edge  of  the  foot  striking  the  opposite  leg  or  interfer- 
^or.  In  color  the  foot  should  be  dark  and  it  should  have 
a  waxy  appearance.  The  angle  formed  by  the  hoof  from  the 
ground  to  the  top  should  be  about  fifty  degrees.  One  of  the 
parts  to  be  examined  most  critically  is  the  frog.  This  should 
be  plump,  large  and  elastic.  Just  above  the  frog  is  what  is 
known  as  the  sensitive  frog,  which  is  a  mass  of  blood  vessels 
and  nerves  and  above  this  again  is  a  fatty  frog  which  acts  as 
a  buffer.  On  top  of  the  latter  is  the  small  navicular  bone. 
This  bone  is  enveloped  in  a  very  sensitive  secreting  mem- 
brane and  if  this  becomes  irritated  in  the  least  through  con- 
cussion resulting  from  the  frog  not  fulfilling  its  functions  as 
a  buffer  then  inflammation  at  once  sets  in;  the  fluid  for  lubri- 
cating the  joint  is  not  secreted  ;  then  folio ws  absorption  of 
the  cartilage  and  finally  disease  of  the  bone  which  interferes 


STRUCTURAL   EXAMINATION  41 

with  the  function  of  the  joint.  These  all  result  in  excruci- 
ating pain  and  greatly  lessen  the  horse's  utility.  Wide, 
open  hoof  heads  (this  has  reference  to  the  top  of  the  foot) 
are  very  desirable. 

70.  Body— Short,  Broad  Back,  Deep  Ribs.     The  typical 
draft  horse  should  stand  comparatively  high  in  front.     This 
should  not  be  due  to  straight  shoulders  or  height  of  the 
withers,  for  when  these  are  high  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  they  are  not  well  covered  with  muscle.     Undue  length 
of  the  back,  very  often  sunken,  is  a  common  defect  of  draft 
horses.     Another  feature  to  look  for  in  viewing  the  barrel  is 
the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  ribs.     If  the  body  is  not  round 
and  the  ribs  well  sprung  and  deep,  the  chest  is  likely  to  be 
narrow.     The  volume  of  the  chest  behind  the  withers  is  an 
index  to  the  capacity  of  the  lungs,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  horses 
that  are  light  there  and  short  in  the  hind  rib  easily  become 
languid  and  depressed  during  exertion.     The  horse  with  a 
poorly  sprung  rib  making  a  shallow  barrel  and  light  loin  is 
usually  a  poor  feeder  and  ill  doer. 

71.  Loin— Thick,  Broad.     The  loin  should  be  thick  and 
broad.     If  there  is  a  slight  elevation  over  the  loin  due  to  an 
extra  development  of  the  muscle  it  may  be  considered  as 
indicating  strength,  though  it  detracts  from  the  symmetry. 

72.  Croup — Broad,  Muscled.     The  croup  should  be  broad 
and  thick  with  muscle.     There  is  considerable  difference  in 
draft  horses  in  regard  to  the  slope  of  the  croup.     In  some  it 
appears  as  if  they  had  been  hit  with  a  board  in  the  hind 
quarter  giving  the  croup  an  extreme  slope,  while  in  others 
it  runs  almost  straight.     The  main  factor  which  adds  to  the 
strength  of  the  croup  is  not  the  slope  of  it  but  the  degree  to 
which  it  is  muscled.     The  slope  that  runs  from  the  center  of 
the  hips  to  the  root  of  the  tail  is  made  by  the  vertebrae  to 
which  some  important   muscles  are   attached.     The  other 
slope  which  runs  from  the  sides  of  the  hip  joints  as  seen  from 
the  side  has  perhaps  more  to  do  with  the  favorable  applica- 


42  JUDGING   HEAVY   HORSES 

tion  of  power  in  this  part,  than  the  slope  that  has  been  first 
mentioned.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  when  a  muscle  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  weight  to  be  lifted  the  power  is  applied  in  the 
most  advantageous  way,  just  the  same  as  when  you  wish  to 
lift  a  weight  you  stand  straight  over  it  instead  of  trying  to 
lift  it  at  arm's  length.  There  seems  to  be  no  real  reason 
why  the  croup  should  slope  so  markedly  as  it  does  in  some 
strains  of  horses,  as  it  certainly  detracts  from  their  appearance. 

73.  Thighs — Muscled;  Quarters   Full.     Passing  down  to 
the  hind  leg  the  thigh  should  be  closely  examined  for  the 
development  of  muscle  in  that  region.     The  quarters  should 
also  be  observed  with  the  same  object  in  view.     There  is  a 
vast  difference  in  horses  in  this  respect,  and  it  will  sometimes 
be  found  that  horses  very  heavily  muscled  at  the  croup  are 
very  lightly  muscled  in  the  quarters.     It  is  a  bad  defect  for 
a  draft  horse  to  be  deficient  in  muscle  in  the  quarters,  for  it 
is  from  these  parts  that  they  obtain  most  of  their  power  to 
pull. 

74.  Hock  — Wide,    Defined,    Properly   Set.      The  hock 
should  be  closely  examined,  for  in  this  joint  there  is  likely 
more  work  done  than  in  any  other  single  joint  of  the  body. 
Narrow,   tied-in   hocks   are    more   subject    to   curbs   than 
those  that  are   broad.     Fleshiness  or  coarseness  about  the 
hocks  is  very  prevalent  among  draft  horses  and  it  is  well  to 
examine  such  closely  for  bog  spavins.     The  tendons  running 
from  the  hocks  should  be  large,  lean  and  firm.     It  is  a  com- 
mon defect  for  a  draft  horse  to  be  too  straight  or  too  crooked 
in  the  hock.     One  that  is  set  properly  gives  more  power. 
The  worst  trouble  and  the  most  common  one  to  be  noted  in 
hocks  of  draft  horses  is  that  of  fleshiness  or  "  gumminess," 
and  such  are  not  only  more  liable  to  hock  troubles,  but  it 
indicates  coarseness  of  organization   which  is  not  usually 
associated  with  durability.     In  looking  at  the  hock  it  should 
appear  wide  both  from  in  front  of  the  horse  and  the  side, 
especially  so  from  the  latter  point  of  view.     The  point  of  the 


Suffolk  stallion,  RENDKSHAM  CUPBEARER.    First  at  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  Show,  1899. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SUFFOLK  PUNCH  HORSE 

VHIS  BRITISH  breed  of  draft  horses  is  exceptionally  uniform  in  type,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  they  have  been  long  established  and  have  been  carefully  bred 
for  this  feature.  They  are  chestnut  in  color  and  the  best  representatives  in  form 
show  a  type  that  is  low  set,  short  legged  and  deep  bodied.  Considering  the  average 
weight  of  the  breed  they  show  an  unusual  amount  of  this  to  be  due  to  the  extreme 
development  of  muscle.  The  bone  is  most  frequently  of  a  high  quality  and  the 
limbs  clean  cut  in  every  feature,  while  feet  of  durable  texture  are  among  their 
common  attributes.  They  have  a  well  established  reputation  for  being  docile  in 
temperament,  easy  keepers,  steady  when  working,  and  activity  is  a  leading 
quality  of  the  breed.  Desirable  weight  is  sometimes  absent  in  its  representatives 
and  frequently  when  this  is  ample  it  is  secured  by  abnormal  fatness  rather  than 
by  general  massivencss.  While  the  fact  that  their  qualities,  chiefly  activity  and 
durability,  especially  adapt  them  for  general  farm  work  of  lighter  draft  purposes 
yet  the  importance  of  the  other  essential  and  draft  qualities,  especially  weight 
should  not  be  overlooked  by  the  judge  in  the  show  ring. 


HIAWATHA  (10067),  Vol.  XVIII.  Champion  Clydesdale  stallion;  bay;  ris- 
ing nine  years  old  ;  height  17-1  hands  high  ;  weight  at  present  2128 
Ibs.  Bred  by  William  Hunter,  Garthland  Mains,  Stranraer.  Property  of 
John  Pollock,  Paper  Mill,  Langside.  Winner  of  first  prizes  ia  the  Aged  Open 
Class  and  the  Cawdor  Scottish  cup  at  the  Scottish  Stallion  Show,  Glasgow, 
in  1898  and  1899;  first  prize  and  E.  H.  the  Prince  of  Wales'  Gold  Medal  at  H.  A.  S. 
Show,  Edinburgh,  1899;  first  prize  and  Duke  of  Montrose  Plate,  Glasgow 
Summer  Show;  also  Duke  of  Portland's  cup  at  Ayr,  1900;  6rst prize  and  Caw- 
dor  Challenge  cup  at  Scottish  Stallion  show,  Glasgow,  1901. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  CLYDESDALE  HORSE 

1*HE  representatives  of  this  breed  of  Scotch  draft  horses  are  usually  bay,  brown, 
black  or  chestnut  in  color,  with  white  markings.  In  conformation,  the  lead- 
Ing  characteristics  sought  are  the  possession  of  weight  with  quality  and  action. 
While  the  adherents  of  the  breed  recognize  the  value  of  weight  yet  they  always 
associate  with  it  quality  of  structure  with  superior  mechanical  action,  and  in  judg- 
ing a  class  of  horses  of  this  breed  these  features  should  have  equal  prominence. 
The  head  in  the  typical  Clydesdale,  though  sometimes  out  of  proportion  to  the 
other  parts,  is  usually  possessed  of  Intelligent  features.  To  secure  the  action 
desired  the  shoulders  must  be  sloping  so  as  to  permit  a  free  and  long  stride  in  the 
walk  and  trot  ;  the  arm  must  necessarily  be  full  muscled,  legs  fluted  and  flat  with 
a  fine  feather  springing  from  the  edge.  The  pasterns,  which  have  received  much 
attention  in  the  formation  of  this  breed,  should  be  decidedly  sloping,  the  hoof  head 
or  top  of  the  foot  should  be  large,  and  no  amount  of  fine  feather  or  excellence  of 
pastern  should  be  allowed  to  overbalance  the  necessity  of  a  good  sized  foot,  cor- 
rectly shaped  and  of  splendid  wearing  texture.  The  back  should  be  short  and, 
though  seemingly  low  from  the  extra  style  secured  by  high  carriage  of  head,  should 
never  be  weak,  which  is  prevented  by  shortness  in  this  part,  and  with  an  easy  ris- 
ing and  full  coupled  loin  running  smoothly  into  a  strong  croup.  The  quarters 
should  be  well  muscled,  and  the  hind  legs  in  addition  to  having  every  evidence  of 
quality  should  be  properly  set,  meaning  thereby  that  they  stand  close  and  the 
parts  have  correct  proportion  in  relation  to  each  other.  In  no  case  should 
style  be  allowed  to  supplant  essential  draft  qualities,  as  it  would  be  a  fault  of 
judgment  to  permit  high  carriage  and  flashy  action  to  attain  prominence  over  a 
deep  middle,  strong  coupling  in  association  with  properly  set  limbs,  as  the  source 
of  Clydesdale  popularity  is  the  degree  to  which  they  combine  the  many  essentials 
of  a  draft  horse  With  activity. 


STRUCTURAL   EXAMINATION  43 

hock  should  be  as  sharp  as  possible  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  all  its  features.  Some  horses  are  especially  sharp  in 
the  prominences  of  the  hock  leading  some  to  question  their 
freedom  from  spavins.  This  formation  is  desirable  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  usually  associated  with  the  best  quality  of 
bone  and  tendon  and  further  it  gives  this  region  more  power 
because  of  the  more  favorable  attachment  of  the  tendons  that 
pass  these  points. 


SCALE  OF   POINTS   FOR   DRAFT   HORSES — GELDING. 


I! 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE : 

Weight,  over  1,500  Ibs;  score  according  to  age 4 

Form,  broad,  massive,  proportioned.   ..    4 

Quality,  bone  smooth,  hard;  tendons  lean;  skin  and  hair 

fine 4 

Temperament,  energetic,  good  disposition 4 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Head,  lean,  medium  size 

Muzzle,  fine;  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried 

Neck,  muscled,  crest  high;  throatlatch  fine;  windpipe  large 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder,  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending  into  back 2 

Arm,  short,  thrown  back i 

Fore  Arm,  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide 2 

Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep,  strongly  supported      2 

Cannons,  short,  lean,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong i 

Pasterns,  sloping,  lengthy,  strong , 3 

Feet,  large,  even  size;  horn  dense;  sole  concave;  bars 
strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  one-half  length  of 

toe  and  vertical  to  ground ^. .       8 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee, 
cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicu- 
lar line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints 

and  back  of  hoof. 4 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  low,  large  girth 2 

Ribs,  long,  close,  sprung 2 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad 2 

Loins,  wide,  short,  thick,  straight 2 

Underline,  flank  low. i 


44  JUDGING  HORSES 

-  £ 
SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES  —  GELDING.  %  O 

Continued,  ^  $ 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide 2 

Croup,  wide,  muscular 2 

Tail,   attached  high,  well  carried i 

Thighs,  muscular 2 

Quarters,  deep,  heavily  muscled 2 

Qaskin  or  lower  thighs,  wide  muscled 2 

Hocks,  clean  cut,  wide,  straight 8 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong  i 

Pasterns,  sloping,  strong,  lengthy 2 

Feet,  large,  even  size;  horn  dense;  dark  color;  sole  con- 
cave; bars  strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  one  half 

length  of  toe  and  vertical  to  ground 6 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  side,  a  perpendicu- 
lar line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle;  and  a  per- 
pendicular line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  run 
parallel  to  the  line  of  the  cannon 4 

ACTION : 

Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long,  balanced 6 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular 4 

Total..  .  zoo 


IV.    JUDGING  HORSES  IN  THE  BREEDING  CLASSES. 

The  preceding  discussion  has  most  to  do  with  the  judging 
of  the  various  types  of  the  horse  in  use  for  pleasure  or  for 
work;  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  present  some  details  that 
should  be  observed  in  making  awards  in  the  breeding  classes. 
In  this  work  the  judge  must  closely  discriminate  between  the 
peculiar  characteristics  of  the  sexes  and  also  employ  much 
judgment  in  determining  the  development  according  to  the 
age. 

75.  Sex  Characteristics.  Preceding  birth  and  for  some 
time  in  foetal  life,  there  are  no  evidences  of  sex.  Such  are 
apparent  at  birth,  but  it  is  not  until  the  approach  of  puberty 
that  the  sex  characteristics  referred  to  here  begin  to  develop. 
After  this  period  is  reached  the  sexes  begin  to  diverge  from 


IN  THE  BREEDING  CLASSES  45 

each  other,  the  male  acquiring  characteristics  that  are  dis- 
tinctly masculine,  while  the  female  acquires  others  peculiarly 
feminine  in  that  they  are  strikingly  different  from  those  of 
the  male.  The  reproductive  cells  of  each  seem  through  their 
characteristics  to  influence  the  peculiarities  of  the  sexes  in  a 
remarkable  manner. 

76.  Differences  in  Disposition.  In  all  classes  of  farm  live 
stock  there  are  very  noticeable  differences  in  disposition,  that 
may  be  credited  to  the  influence  of  the  sex.  The  active  dis- 
position of  the  male  animal  oftentimes  is  forced  to  spend 
itself  in  the  development  of  viciousness  and  it  cannot  be  dis- 
puted that  such  has  been  true  of  many  of  the  best  breeding 
sires,  especially  among  those  of  the  lighter  breeds  of  horses  and 
the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle.  The  difference  in  the  nature  of  the 
sexes  is  even  characteristic  of  the  reproductive  cells — the 
sperm  or  male  cell  being  active  and  smaller,  while  the  ovum 
or  female  cell  is  larger  and  more  stable.  From  this  condi- 
tion through  the  various  stages  of  life  the  differences  in  the 
disposition  of  the  sexes  is  easily  traceable .  The  lamb  of  the 
male  sex  becomes  combative  and  more  active  in  disposition 
as  he  develops  while  the  ewe  lamb  loses  the  early  activity 
that  was  common  to  all  and  develops  into  the  gentler  ewe; 
the  calf  of  the  male  has  a  fierceness  of  mien  that  seeks  active 
expression  in  imaginary  combats,  becoming  easily  excited  to 
anger,  when  it  is  noticeable  that  the  suppliant  bawl  has 
become  a  fierce  roar;  while  the  cow  has  lost  the  playful 
energy  that  she  had  as  a  calf  and  now  has  none  to  spare  for 
anything  but  her  quiet  vocation  of  making  milk;  the  colts 
tend  to  develop  the  same  restless  activities  while  the  fillies 
assume  the  quieter  quality  of  mind  common  to  maternity,  and 
in  a  like  manner  the  pigs  separate  in  their  dispositions  as  the 
sex  characteristics  become  pronounced.  Thus  in  all  live  stock 
the  changes  of  disposition  are  traceable  to  sexual  develop- 
ment and  it  is  because  of  the  close  connection  between  the 
two  features  that  many  breeders  consider  the  characteristic 


46  JUDGING   HORSES 

disposition    valuable    indications   of  future    usefulness   for 
breeding  purposes. 

77.  Differences  in  Form.    In  the  development  of  the  sexes 
marked  differences  in  form  result.     The  true  male  form  is 
heavier  at  the  shoulders  than  the  female  while  the  latter  is 
wider  in  the  region  of  the  pelvis.     This  should  be  borne  in 
mind  in  critically  examining  animals  of  the  different  sexes, 
for  it    may  oftentimes  prevent  an  adverse  criticism  which 
should  be  favorable  comment.     It  is  not  infrequent  to  hear 
the  remark  passed  that  a  ram  for  instance,  in  a  breeding 
class,  would  be  an  exceptionally  good  sheep  if  he  were  as 
wide  behind  as  he  is  in  front.     This  is  thought  by  some  to 
be  the  striking  defect  of  our  mutton  breeds  (and  perhaps  it  is) 
but  in  many  instances  it  is  but  the  universal  pattern  that 
nature  has  adopted  for  the  male  form,     A  male  of  any  class 
of  stock  should  be  expected  to  be  wider  in  the  chest  than 
behind  though  it  should  not  be  weak  in  the  latter  part. 
Width  of  hip,  however,  is  not  the  chief  qualification  of  the 
female  form;  depth  in  this  region  or  length  of  the  barrel  and 
from  rib  to  hip,  is  of  more  importance  as  this  makes  provis- 
ion for  the  proper  growth  of  the  foetus. 

78.  Variation  in  Features.     There  are  many  marked  vari- 
ations in  the  features  that  are  characteristic  of  the  difference 
in  the  sexes.     In  the  stallion  the  face  has  a  harder  look  and 
the  head  is  larger.     The  neck  is  fuller  and  the  crest  or  swell 
of  the  neck  is  very  pronounced  and  surmounted  with  a  heavy 
mane.     The  mare  has  a  slimmer  face  with  a  softer  expres- 
sion, the  neck  is  thin  and  often  ewe  shaped  and  the  mane 
light  and  fine.     In  cattle  the  face  of  the  bull  is  more  or  less 
burly  and  covered  with  wavy  hair,  the  horn  is  strong  and 
inclined  to  roundness  while  the  neck  is  thick  and  stout  with 
a  full  crest.     In  the  cow  the  face  is  long,  free  from  wavy 
hair,  the  horn  light  and  flat  and  the  neck  thin  and  in-curved 
on  the  top  line.     In  sheep  the  face  of  the  ram  is  shorter  ard 
heavier  and  the  neck  has  a  heavy  ' '  scrag  ' '  or  crest.     The 


blare  mare.  HENDRIE  CROWN  PRINCESS,  first  in  1898  and  flrstana  reserve 
champion  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show,  1899.  Sold  for  $5,500  at  Lord 
Wantage's  auction  sale. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   SHIRE  HORSE 

HMONG  the  representatives  of  this  long  established  breed  of  English  draft  horse 
the  most  desirable  form  is  low,  broad  and  massive.  Weight  is  considered  a 
leading  feature  and  so  with  this  we  must  associate  the  attributes  of  being  heavily 
built,  muscular,  with  large  bone  and  rather  slow  movement.  Strength  of  shoulder 
has  been  preferable  to  slope,  which  is  probably  given  power  in  the  collar  but 
detracted  from  the  freedom  and  length  of  the  stride.  The  body  of  the  best  repre- 
sentatives is  of  exceptional  merit,  being  large  in  girth,  deep,  strongly  coupled  with 
broad,  short  back  and  heavily  muscled  quarters.  Their  points  of  excellence 
are  undoubtedly  exceptional  weight,  made  up  of  heavy  bone,  full  muscular 
development,  with  width  and  depth  of  form  ;  associated  with  these  qualities 
there  are  kindred  deficiencies  which  are  sometimes  in  evidence,  meaning 
thereby  a  lack  in  general  quality,  coupled  with  a  sluggish  temperament. 
The  superior  consideration  which  has  been  given  to  weight  has  frequently  over- 
balanced the  claims  of  action,  consequently  while  showing  to  excellent  advantage 
standing  there  are  some  which  fail  to  sustain  their  merit  when  their  action  is 
shown.  A  lack  of  quality  in  a  draft  horse  must  necessarily  be  discountenanced- 
tor  durability  depends  on  this  and  also  on  the  set  of  the  limbs. 


8061     '  ' 


Percheron  Stallion  PINK  34765  (47513),  foaled  April  27, 1900.  1st  at  Iowa 
State  Fair,  1903.  1st,  sweepstakes  andogrand  sweepstakes  Minnesota  State 
Fair,  1903.  1st  and  Champion  International,  Chicago,  1903.  Owned  by 
Dunham,  Fletcher  &  Coleman,  Wayne,  111. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PERCHERON  HORSE 
IN  THE  establishment  of  this  French  breed  of  draft  horses  the  guiding  ideal  has 

been  to  develop  an  active  and  durable  type  of  draft  horses  suited  for  drawing  , 
loads  at  a  rapid  pace.  The  degree  to  which  weight  is  desirable  in  the  modern  draft 
horse  has  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  heavier  type  with  these  characteristics  yet 
in  evidence.  The  modern  type  of  this  breed  Is  short  legged,  compactly  and  stoutly 
built.  The  representatives  which  best  exemplify  the  type  show  an  active 
temperament,  Intelligent  heads,  short,  full  crested  necks,  with  deep  body  and  wide 
croup.  To  meet  the  requirements  of  their  patrons  they  must  possess  with  this 
abundance  of  quality,  attractive  style  and  active  movement.  The  modern  type 
shows  a  difference  from  the  original  in  being  black  in  color  and  somcwnat  closer  to 
the  ground  than  those  first  imported.  The  original  gray  Percheron  had  for  its 
peculiar  characteristics  an  unusual  combination  of  strength  and  active 
action  with  style  and  endurance.  They  had  an  abundance  of  style,  with 
round  bodies  and  an  exceptional  quality  of  bono.  The  highest  typo  of  this  breed 
in  the  present  show  rings  should  be  typical  of  an  active  draft  horse  with  the  quality 
and  the  substance  to  justify  durability.  To  serve  this  purpose  to  the  fullest  extent 
the  necessity  of  regular  and  straight  action  with  properly  set  limbs  should  not  be 
a  secondary  consideration  in  any  show  ring,  and  in  the  mind  of  the  judge  no 
amount  of  flashy  action  and  toppiness  should  be  allowed  to  overbalance  these 
features.  The  weight  that  is  necessary  in  representatives  of  this  breed  should  be 
made  up  of  a  desirable  quality  of  bone  with  muscle  in  those  parts  where  real 
strength  resides  and  not  by  a  development  in  legions  that  have  little  to  do  with 
pulling  power. 


IN   THE   BREEDING    CLASSES  47 

ewe's  face  is  finer  and  the  neck  much  lighter.  In  swine  the 
boar's  head  is  short  and  inclined  to  coarseness  and  the  tusks 
are  strong  and  large.  The  neck  is  full  and  the  bristles 
abundant  and  with  age  the  shields  (thickening  of  the  hide 
over  the  shoulder  blades)  develop.  The  sow  is  smaller  in 
the  face,  the  neck  much  lighter  and  finer  just  at  the  point 
where  it  joins  the  head.  These  things  are  all  features  of  the 
sex  characteristics  and  their  value,  which  will  be  discussed 
in  what  follows,  will  indicate  the  degree  to  which  they  should 
be  looked  for  in  all  breeding  classes. 

79.  Relation  of  Sex  Characteristics  to  Sterility.  When  the 
sex  characteristics  that  have  been  described  fail  to  develop 
in  the  mature  animal,  it  is  invariably  good  evidence  of  the 
lack  of  procreative  power.  The  effect  of  castration  is  evi- 
dence of  the  fact  that  if  anything  interferes  with  the  maturity 
of  the  reproductive  organs,  the  sex  characteristics  fail  to 
develop.  If  the  operation  is  performed  early  in  life  there  is 
a  decided  approach  to  the  characteristics  of  the  feminine  type 
in  the  instance  of  geldings,  steers,  wethers  and  barrows. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  true  of  the  opposite  sex — 
thwarted  or  impaired  development  results  in  the  production 
of  the  characteristics  that  are  peculiar  to  the  male  type.  As 
an  instance  of  this  the  occurrence  of  ' '  free  martins  ' '  in  cattle 
may  be  cited.  This  term  is  applied  to  twins  in  which  the  one 
is  a  male  and  the  other  a  female.  The  female  usually  pos- 
sesses the  sex  characteristics  of  the  male  as  she  has  the  coarse 
appearance  in  the  head,  neck  and  horn,  and  when  this  is  so 
it  will  be  found  that  she  is  invariably  infertile.  Extreme 
effeminacy  on  the  part  of  the  male  is  equally  indicative  of 
sterility  as  may  be  attested  to  by  the  effeminate  appearance 
and  the  sterility  that  results  from  inbreeding  some  classes  of 
stock.  Low,  referring  to  this  says  of  closely  in  and  inbred 
animals,  ' '  They  become  as  it  were  sooner  old;  the  males  lose 
their  virile  aspect  and  become  at  length  incapable  of  recreat- 
ing their  race."  Walker  (Intermarriages)  cites  many 


48  JUDGING   HORSES 

instances  that  have  been  observed  by  different  poultry  breed- 
ers, bearing  out  the  proposition  that  sterility  through  close 
in  and  inbreeding  with  some  animals  is  followed  by  the  loss 
or  interchange  of  sex  characteristics. 

80.  Relation  of  Sex  Characteristics  to  Prepotency.     The 
non-development  of  the  sex  characteristics  in  the  male  is 
indicative  of  the  lack  of  vigor  and  that  in  turn  has  a  close 
relation  to  prepotency  or  the  impressive  powers  of  a  sire. 
Kffeminacy  means  a  lack  of  tone  in  muscle  and  loss  of  vigor 
and  this  is  very  observable  in  sires  lacking  in  impressive 
powers,  while  the  most  noted  sires  in  the  history  of  breeding 
have  been  remarkably  virile  with  the  characteristics  of  mas- 
culinity unusually  developed. 

81.  The  Stallion  Classes.     Excepting  the  sex  character- 
istics the  stallion  should  have  the  qualities  that  have  been 
described  in  the  class  for  geldings.     The  stallion  should  have 
the  determined  expression,  the  hard  features,  the  high  crest 
and   full   neck,    that   are  evidences  of  masculinity.     With 
these   there   should   be  the   active  vigorous   temperament, 
which  also  indicates  virility.     The  testicles  should  be  nor- 
mal in  size  and  both  should  be  visible  in  the  sac  or  scrotum, 
for  impotency  is  often  indicated  by  their  non-appearance. 

It  is  a  frequent  subject  for  discussion  as  to  whether  or  not 
the  stallions  in  some  classes  should  be  judged  solely  as  to 
their  individual  merit  or  also  include  the  merit  of  their  pedi- 
gree, performance  and  progeny.  Usually  the  conditions 
relating  to  the  awarding  of  the  prizes  are  explicit  enough 
to  avoid  such  a  discussion  but  where  they  are  not  it  is  best 
to  consider  in  making  awards  all  the  attributes  that  will 
add  to  the  value  of  the  stallion.  Pedigree  in  a  breeding 
class  has  a  value,  so  has  performance  ;  and  for  this  reason 
they  should  be  given  consideration  along  with  the  personal 
merit  of  the  stallion  and  his  progeny.  In  the  instance 
of  a  standard  bred  trotter  it  is  assumed  by  some  that 
the  fact  that  the  stallion  complies  with  the  standard  is 


IN   THE   BREEDING   CLASSES  49 

sufficient  consideration  to  give  his  breeding  but  those  who 
have  given  the  matter  any  study  will  concede  that  there  is  a 
vast  difference  in  the  value  of  the  pedigrees  of  standard 
horses.  The  judge  should  be  able  to  discriminate  between 
pedigrees  and  also  to  be  broad  minded  enough  to  include  in 
his  estimate  of  the  different  stallions  before  him  the  other 
characteristics  that  make  the  animal  valuable  for  breeding 
purposes. 

82.  Importance  of  Correct  Conformation.  In  the  breed- 
ing classes  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  conforma- 
tion. A  defect  of  conformation  even  in  the  smallest  particu- 
lar is  very  apt  to  be  transmitted  and  for  that  reason  it  should 
be  discountenanced  in  breeding  stock.  It  is  generally  known 
that  even  such  a  slight  matter  as  a  twist  of  the  fetlock,  or 
the  turn  of  the  foot  in  action  is  very  likely  to  pass  from  a 
stallion  to  all  his  get.  Considering  however  greater  defects 
such  as  a  curby  hock,  a  weak  knee  or  other  malformations,  it 
is  certainly  the  duty  of  the  judge  to  pronounce  against  them. 
To  present  this  feature  plainly  it  may  be  stated  that  a  breeder 
would  be  better  justified  in  using  a  stallion  that  had  a  spavin 
on  a  well  constructed  hock  than  one  that  was  without  a 
spavin  but  had  a  hock  that  was  very  defective  in  conforma- 
tion; the  reason  being  that  in  the  instance  of  the  well  con- 
structed hock  with  a  spavin  it  is  certain  that  the  horse  was 
subjected  to  a  severe  wrench  or  injury  of  some  kind  else  the 
spavin  would  not  be  there.  In  the  instance  of  the  horse 
with  the  badly  constructed  hock  it  needs  only  the  opportu- 
nity, which  occurs  in  nearly  all  kind  of  work,  to  develop  a 
spavin,  and  the  reason  there  is  not  one  there  is  solely  because 
extra  care  has  been  given  to  the  protection  of  this  part.  Breed- 
ing animals  of  this  kind  may  be  so  carefully  tended  and 
pampered  that  they  fail  to  show  such  diseases  as  would  be 
produced  by  their  conformation  under  the  ordinary  stress  of 
labor. 


50  JUDGING   HORSES 

83.  Hereditary  Diseases.     In  these  classes  it  is  of  impor- 
tance to  have  in  mind  the  diseases  that  are  known  as  heredi- 
tary.    This  term  does  not  imply  that  the  disease  is  directly 
transmitted  but  that  a  horse  having  them  transmits  to  his 
get  a  decided  tendency  to  contract  them.     The  newly  born 
foal  never  shows  them,  but  from  its  parents  it  inherits  the 
defects  of  conformation   that   predisposes  it  towards  these 
diseases.     The  Royal  Commission  composed  of  the  leading 
veterinarians  of  England  have  decided  that  the  following 
diseases  in  horses  are  hereditary:     Roaring,  whistling,  side- 
bone,  ringbone,  navicular  disease,  curb,  bone  spavin,  bog 
spavin,  thoroughpin,  grease,  shivering  and  cataract. 

84.  The  Mare  Classes.     In  addition  to  the  lighter  head, 
neck  and  fore  quarter  which  is  the  proper  type  of  the  sex, 
the  mare  should   specially  differ  from  the  stallion  in  the 
roominess  of  the  barrel.     The  ribs  should  be  deeper  and  the 
body  less  compact  and  with  much  more  length  of  loin  than 
in  the  case  of  the  stallion. 

85.  Colts  and  Fillies.     This  is  probably  the  hardest  class 
for  the  judge  to  satisfy  himself  in  rendering  decisions.     This 
class  cannot  be  judged  without  considering  the  possibilities 
of  the  future  which  comes  only  from  experience.     It  is  the 
growthy  colt  or  filly  with  ideal  limbs  and  rather  lanky  body 
that  is  likely  to  prove  the  superior  animal  when  mature; 
while  the  compact,  smooth  bodied  colt  or  filly  that  is  not 
constructed   on  correct   mechanical   principles  is   likely  to 
develop  into  a  disappointment. 

V.      ESTIMATING    THE    AGE   OP   HORSES    BY    THEIR    TEETH. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  the  indications  of  age  as  they 
appear  in  the  teeth  that  no  animal  may  be  unfairly  classed 
with  those  that  are  younger.  The  indications  become  in  a 
degree  satisfactory  to  those  who  have  proven  them  many 
times  by  personal  observation  and  experience  in  noting  the 


Percheron  Mare  MOUVETTE  30012  (43850),  foaled  1896.  Grand  Sweepstakes 
Minnesota  State  Fair,  1903.  Champion  International,  1903.  Owned  by 
Dunham,  Fletcher  &  (Joleman,  Wayne,  111. 


Sketches  of  horses'  teeth  showing  — 1,  a  temporary  incisor  of  character- 
istic shape;  2,  a  permanent  incisor,  broader  and  longer  than  No.  1;  3,  a  per- 
manent incisor  with  lines  indicating  the  appearance  of  the  two  as  it  is  sub- 
jected to  wear.  At  "A"  the  unworn  surface  of  the  new  tooth  is  shown.  At 
'•B"  the  mark  is  indicated  with  the  general  shape  of  the  table.  At  "C"  it  is 
noticeable  that  the  mark  becomes  much  smaller  while  at  "B"  the  triangular 
shape  of  the  tooth  that  is  well  worn  makes  its  appearance;  4,  shows  the 
natural  mark  and  table  of  a  horse's  tooth.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a 
ring  of  enamel  around  the  black  mark  or  center;  5,  this  sketch  shows  the 
table  of  the  horse's  tooth  that  has  been  "Bishoped"  or  fixed  so  as  to  boar 
some  resemblance  to  a  young  tooth  with  the  natural  mark.  This  black  mark 
has  been  made  in  the  tooth  by  the  use  of  a  hard  instrument. 


f^2/2  to  3  Years 

to  4  Years 

1...4'/2  to  5  Years 
Sketch  of  the  permanent  incisors,  indicating  the  order  in  which  they 
appear  in  pairs.  The  central  pair  of  permanent  incisors  in  both  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws  appear  when  the  horse  is  about  two  and  one-half  or  three 
years  of  age,  the  next  pair  replace  the  temporary  incisors  when  the  horse  is 
about  four  years  of  age,  and  the  outside  pair,  making  -a  full  mouth,  usually 
appear  at  five  years  of  age. 


FIVE  YEARS   • 
LOWER  INCISORS 


Six  YEARS 
LOWER  INCISORS 


SEVEN  YEARS  E|GHT  YEARS 

LOWER  INCISORS 
LOWER   INCISORS 

At  five  years  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  marks  are  very  distinct  and  tne 
tables  worn  but  slightly  in  all  of  the  incisors.  At  six  years  the  center  pair 
In  the  lower  jaw  show  some  wear,  the  mark  becoming  smaller.  At  seven 
years  the  second  pair  have  nearly  lost  their  marks,  while  at  eight  the  third 
or  outside  pair  show  considerable  wear  with  but  a  trace  of  the  mark. 


ESTIMATING  THE  AGE  BY  THEIR  TEETH  51 

differences  that  exist.  It  is  to  be  remembered  however,  that 
the  foods  fed  them  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  wear  of 
the  teeth,  thus  making  differences  which  are  not  solely  due 
to  age.  Liberal  feeding  which  favors  early  maturity  is  also 
likely  to  affect  the  appearance  and  arrival  of  the  incisors. 

86.  Appearance  of  Incisors.    The  difference  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  milk  teeth  or  temporary  incisors  and  the  perma- 
nent incisors  is  readily  understood  after  they  have  been  once 
inspected.     The  temporary  incisors  are  slender,  narrow  and 
constricted  at  the  neck  and  very  white,  while  the  permanent 
incisors  are  broader,  thicker  and  usually  of  a   light  yellow- 
ish tinge. 

87.  Order  of  Appearance  of  Incisors.     The  permanent 
incisors  of  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  jaws  appear  at  the 
same  time  so  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  upper. 
There  are  six  permanent  incisors  in  each  jaw  in  the  full  mouth 
and  these  make  their  appearance  in  pairs  about  as  follows  : 
The  pair  in  the  center  are  the  first  to  appear  and  they  have 
displaced  the  temporary  pair  and  are  full  grown  when  the  colt 
is  from  2j^  to  3  years  old.     The  second  pair  or  the  two  next 
to  these  are  fully  grown  at  3^  to  4  years  and  the  third  pair 
have  displaced  the  two  corner  temporary  incisors  at  4^  to  5 
years  of  age.    At  this  time  the  horse  usually  has  a  full  mouth. 

88.  Disappearance  of  the  Tables.     The  best  indications 
of  the  age  from  five  to  ten  years  is  the  order  of  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  tables  or  marks  in  the  incisors.     At  five 
years  the  tables  in  the  central  pair  of  incisors  of  the  lower 
jaw  show  some  wear  but  it  is  not  until  the  horse  is  about  six 
years   old   that   they  have   almost   disappeared.     At   seven 
years  of  age  the  * '  swallow-tail  "  as  it  is  called,  or  the  nick 
in  the  corner  incisor  appears.     At  this  age  also,  the  two 
incisors  next  to  the  central  pair  lose  almost  all  traces  of  their 
tables  through  wear,  and  at  eight  years  the  corner  incisors  or 
outside  pair  are  so  worn  as  to  be  almost  free  from  any  ap- 
pearance of  having  tables.     At  nine  years  of  age  the  tables 


52  JUDGING   HORSES 

have  disappeared  from  the  central  pair  of  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw;  at  ten  the  marks  in  the  next  pair  in  the  upper 
jaw  are  about  worn  out  and  when  eleven  is  reached  the  tables 
have  almost  disappeared  from  the  corner  pair  of  the  upper  row 
of  incisors.  Sometimes  the  teeth  are  "bishoped,"  that  is, 
marks  are  made  in  the  teeth  to  represent  tables  thus  making 
the  horse  appear  to  be  younger  by  the  tables  of  its  teeth. 
This  treatment  may  always  be  told  from  the  unnatural 
appearance  of  the  table  as  the  normal  tooth  always  has  a  rim 
of  enam,el  around  the  tables. 

After  a  horse  passes  beyond  the  age  mentioned  it  is  a  dif- 
ficult matter  to  make  any  further  estimate  with  any  degree 
of  certainty.  As  the  age  increases,  however,  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  incisors  appear  more  triangular  and  the  teeth 
spring  from  the  jaw  with  a  greater  slope. 

VI.       EXAMINATION   FOR   UNSOUNDNESS. 

89.  A  Blemish  Different  from  Unsoundness.     A  blemish 
is  something  that  depreciates  the  value  of  a  horse  without 
interfering  with  its  usefulness.     Such  injuries  as  wire  cuts 
mar  the  appearance  of  a  horse  and  are  properly  called  blem- 
ishes, while  unsoundnesses  include  spavins,  curbs,  ringbones 
and  all  other  diseases  that  lessen  the  usefulness  of  a  horse  in 
its  sphere. 

90.  Decayed  and  Worn  Teeth.     In  examining  a  horse  for 
unsoundness  it  is  well  to  follow  a  regular  order  beginning 
with  the  teeth.     The  best  indication  of  decayed  teeth  or  any 
similar  unsoundness  of  the  mouth  is  the  odor  that  comes 
from  it  or  attaches  itself  to  the  hand  on  the  introduction  of 
the  latter.     If  the  outer  edges  of  the  incisors  are  broken  and 
worn  away,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  horse  is  addicted  to 
' '  cribbing  ' '  in  the  stable. 

91.  Discharges  from  the  Nostrils.     The  nostrils  should  be 
of  a  fresh  pink  color  somewhat  moist  but  there  should  be  no 
discharge  from   them.     If  there  is,   glanders  or  distemper 


TEN  YEARS 

UPPER    INCISORS 


FIFTEEN  YEARS 

ELEVEN  YEARS  LowER   INCISORS 

UPPER    INCISORS 

Passing  to  the  permanent  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw  at  nine  years  the 
central  pair  have  almost  completely  lost  their  mark.  At  ten  those  adjoining 
these  have  reached  the  same  condition,  while  at  eleven  the  marks  have 
about  vanished  from  all  of  the  permanent  incisors.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
as  the  age  advances  the  appearance  of  the  worn  tables  assumes  a  more  tri- 
angular form. 


r        w  TWENTY  ONE  VELARS 

FIVE  YEARS 

Comparison  of  a  five-year-old  mouth  with  one  that  is  twenty  years  old, 
showing  the  marked  contrast  that  develops,  as  age  advances,  in  the  slope  of 
the  teeth  as  viewed  from  the  side.  To  Goubaux  and  Barrier's  "  Exterior  of 
the  Horse"  the  author  is  greatly  indebted  for  the  prints  of  horses'  teeth 
which  have  been  shown.  These  have  been  modified  somewhat  to  bring  out 
more  clearly  the  necessary  distinctions. 


5   0- 

a 


S  a 
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ih  a 


EXAMINATION    FOR   UNSOUNDNESS  53 

may  be  suspected,  which  should  lead  to  a  trial  of  the  mallein 
test  if  there  is  any  suspicion  of  the  former. 

92.  Impaired   Vision.     In  regard   to   the  eye   there  are 
many  defects  of  vision  which  can  hardly  be  termed  unsound- 
nesses,  yet  they  should  be  carefully  .looked  for.     A  horse  by 
its  action  will  usually  indicate  if  the  eyesight  is  good.     Step- 
ping inordinately  high  or  an  inclination  to  shy  readily  indi- 
cate defective  vision.     By  moving  the  hand  gently  in  front 
of  the  eye,  blindness  may  generally  be  discovered  if  the  eye 
is  so  affected.     The  hand  should  be  moved  slowly  for  if  the 
motion  is  made  quickly  the  influence  of  the  air  on  the  eye 
will  induce  the  horse  to  shut  it  though  it  may  not  have  seen 
the  motion  of  the  hand. 

93.  Defective  Hearing.     Defects  of  hearing  are  more  com- 
mon than  is  ordinarily  supposed  and  they  can  usually  be 
foretold  by  the  action  of  the  ears.     Rigid  ears  indicate  that 
the  hearing  has  been  lost.    On  the  other  hand  when  the  ears 
are  used  excessively  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  the  eye- 
sight is  not  as  perfect  as  it  should  be  and  on  that  account 
the  horse  is  trying  to  make  its  ears  assist  its  eyes  by  follow- 
ing closely  every  sound. 

94.  Sweenied   Shoulders.      Passing  to  the  shoulder  it 
should  be  closely  observed  for  the  presence   of  sweeny. 
This  is  a  shrinkage  or  atrophy  of  the  muscles  of  this  region 
leaving  the  shoulder  appear  flat  and  the  blade  bare  of  muscle. 

95.  Capped  Elbows.     On  the  point  of  the  elbow,  shoe 
boils  or  capped  elbows  may  be  frequently  seen.     The  point 
of  the  elbow  is  unduly  enlarged  by  the  accumulation  of  mat- 
ter.    It  is  a  blemish  as  it  is  unsightly  though  not  interfering 
with  the  horse  at  work. 

96.  Splints.    Continuing  down  the  fore  leg,  splints  should 
be  looked  for  on  the  cannon.     They  may  be  found  on  almost 
any  part  of  this  region  but  some  care  is  necessary  not  to 
mistake  the  ends  of  the  two  small  bones,  that  are  associated 
with  the  cannon,  for  splints.     In  some  horses  the  end  of 


54  JUDGING   HORSES 

these  bones  are  surmounted  with  noticeable  knobs.  If  these 
lumps  are  found  on  both  of  the  legs  in  exactly  the  same  place, 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  they  are  natural.  When 
the  splint  is  located  at  the  back  part  of  the  leg  near  the  ten- 
don or  close  to  the  knee  joint,  so  as  to  interfere  with  the 
action,  it  is  in  the  worst  place  that  it  is  possible  to  have  it. 
A  small  splint  in  a  position  of  the  leg  where  it  is  not  likely 
to  cause  lameness  is  not  considered  by  most  judges  to  be 
more  than  a  blemish.  The  fact  that  splints  on  young  horses 
very  frequently  disappear  in  a  year  or  two  is  sufficient  rea- 
son for  overlooking  this  defect  when  it  is  present  in  young 
animals. 

97.  Ringbones.     These  are  generally  located  on  the  pas- 
tern.    There  are  two  forms  of  it  called  high  and  low  ring- 
bone, depending  on  the  location.     Ordinarily  it  is  situated 
at  the  hoof  head  where  the  foot  joins  the  pastern  and  it  may 
be  on  any  one  of  the  four  feet.     Usually  it  can   be  seen 
because  of  the  prominence  produced  but  the  hand  should  be 
passed  over  the  part  that  a  small  form  of  it  may  not  escape 
detection. 

98.  Sidebones.     By  pressing  the  thumb  and   the  fore 
finger  around  the  hind  quarter  of  the  front  foot  this  disease 
may  be  easily  detected.     It  is  common  to  the  front  feet  only. 
Small,  hard  prominences  may  be  found  on  the  side  of  the 
pastern  just  above  the  foot  in  horses  that  have  them.     They 
were  originally  cartilage  but  became  ossified  and  solid  caus- 
ing pain  and  considerable  lameness  especially  when  the  horse 
having  them  is  driven  on  hard  roads. 

99.  Quarter  Cracks  and  Sand  Cracks.     The  feet  are  sub- 
ject to  many  forms  of  unsoundnesses  and  among  the  most 
prevalent  are  sand  cracks  and  quarter  cracks.     In  very  sandy 
districts  during  the  hot  days  of  summer  when  horses  are 
driven  considerable  the  hoof  becomes  so  heated  that  it  cracks 
and  in  time  results  in  a  very  troublesome  disorder      Usually 
this  defect  originates  from  weak  feet.     Quarter  cracks  are 


EXAMINATION    FOR   UNSOUNDNESS  55 

very  similar  to  sand  cracks  excepting  that  they  are  seen  on 
the  quarters  of  the  hoof.  They  extend  from  the  coronary 
band  or  the  hoof  head  to  about  the  middle  of  the  hoof  in 
cases  of  ordinary  severity.  Looking  at  the  bottom  of  the 
foot  there  should  be  no  cracks  running  from  the  bars  to  the 
top  of  the  hoof.  Large  cracks  here  are  very  common  owing 
to  the  general  practice  of  cutting  out  the  heels  in  shoeing. 

100.  Corns.     These  are  generally  located  in  the  corner 
of  the  heels  and  their  presence  may  be  more  or  less  indicated 
by  the  way  a  horse  wiL  shrink  when  the  sole  of  the  foot  is 
hit  in  that  region  with  the  handle  of  a  knife. 

101.  Thrush  and  Scratches.     Thrush  is  a  diseased  condi- 
tion of  the  foot  in  the  region  of  the  frog  and  invariably  makes 
its  presence  known  by  the  disagreeable  odor  that  comes  from 
it.     Scratches  occur  in  the  back  part  of  the  pastern,  and, 
while  not  properly  an  unsoundness,  they  cause  the  animal 
affected  a  great  deal  of  pain  and  annoyance.     It  is  a  condi- 
tion due  to  the  filthiness  of  this  part  and  will  generally  dis- 
appear before  cleanliness  and  antiseptic  lotions. 

102.  Locating  Lameness.      In  locating  lameness  in  the 
leg,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  the  sound  limb  that 
the  horse  puts  down  with  the  most  confidence  and  when  the 
ailing  leg  comes  to  the  ground  an  effort  to  ease  it  is  made 
by  throwing  the  head  up.     When  a  horse  shows  lameness 
in  the  front  legs,  if  the  trouble  is  in  the  shoulder  the  leg  will 
usually  be  flexed  at  the  knee  when  standing  at  ease;   but 
when  the  sprain  or  lameness  is  below  the  knee  the  affected 
limb  will  be  extended.     When  sore  on  both  front  feet  they 
will  be  extended  as  far  as  convenient, 

103.  Thoroughpin.     In  detecting  diseases  in  the  region  of 
the  hock  or  in  fact  in  any  other  part,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  first  know  the  outlines  of  the  perfect  structure.     This 
has  special  application  to  the  diseases  of  this  region;  for 
there  are  many  that  may  show  but  a  very  slight  variation 
from  the  normal  condition  and  thoroughpin  is  one  of  these. 


56  JUDGING   HORSES 

Thoroughpin  is  located  between  the  tendon  of  the  hind  leg 
and  the  bone  and  appears  just  above  the  hoek.  It  consists 
of  a  soft  swelling  that  may  be  pushed  from  side  to  side. 

104.  Curb.     Curb,  which  occurs  just   below  the  hock 
and  to  the  rear  is  a  thickening  of  the   ligaments  in  that 
region.     By  looking  at  the  leg  from  the  side  it  may  be  easily 
noticed  as  it  is  a  variation   from  the  straight   line  which 
should  run  from  the  point  of  the  hock  down  towards  the  end 
of  the  cannon. 

105.  Bone   Spavin.      The  most  common  trouble  of  the 
hocks,  and  the  worst  of  all,  is  bone  spavin.     To  detect  this, 
it  is  best  to  stand  in  front  of  the  horse  and  take  a  position  so 
that  in  looking  back  the  inner  outline  of  the  hind  leg  may  be 
seen  very  clearly.     This  is  a  bone  deposit  which  nature  has 
thrown  out  to  strengthen  an  otherwise  weak  joint  and  when 
it  has  developed  it  ties  the  joint  so  that  it  interferes  with  the 
proper  action  of  the  horse.     The  hind  leg  instead  of  coming 
down  on  the  heel  as  it  should  in  a  sound  limb,  is  thrown 
forward  so  that  the  toe  reaches  the  ground  first  and  the  stride 
is  unnaturally  shortened,  and   lameness  frequently  results. 
Occult  spavin,  that  is  where  the  deposit  is  not  apparent  to 
the  eye  but  hidden  in  the  joints,  is  very  hard  to  determine; 
the  usual  method  of  detection  is  to  lift  the  suspected  leg  and 
then  starting  the  horse  quickly  observe  the  result  when  the 
foot  reaches  the  ground.      Undue  shrinkage  indicates  the 
presence  of  spavin  in  this  form. 

106.  Bog  Spavin.     Bog  spavin  is  usually  associated  with 
thoroughpin  and  it  is  very  similar  to  the  latter;  differing 
from  it  only  in  location.     In  the  natural   depression  that 
occurs  on  the  inner  and  front  part  of  the  hock,  the  oil  from 
the  joint  accumulates  and  forms  a  soft  swelling  commonly 
known  as  bog  spavin.     The  term  blood  spavin  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  enlargement  of  the  vein  that  passes  across  the 
hock  from  in  front.     This,  however,  is  not  an  unsoundness. 


EXAMINATION    FOR   UNSOUNDNESS  57 

107.  Unsound  in  Wind.     After  giving  all  the  parts  careful 
inspection  for  soundness,  the  horse  should  be  driven  rapidly 
for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  so  as  to  discover  wind  troubles.     The 
horse  should   be  stopped   quickly  and   then  by  advancing 
closely  to  the  neck  the  breathing  may  be  noted  whether  free 
and  easy  or  accompanied  with  a  sound  similar  to  whistling. 
If  the  breathing  is  characterized  by  a  wheezing  or  whistling 
sound,  then  whistling,  roaring  or  some  other  disorder  of  the 
air   passages  is   present.      If   the    origin   of  the  sound   is 
doubtful  —  it   might  be  possible  to  result  from    too    tight 
a  collar  —  have  the  horse  taken  out  of  the  harness  and 
ridden  rapidly.     When  the  breathing  is  not  regular  it  is 
likely  that  the  horse  is  troubled  with  the  heaves.     In  the 
instance  of  horses  so  afflicted,  the  breathing  is  more  or  less 
spasmodic,  tbe  air  from  the  lungs  seeming  to  be  half  expelled 
when  the  respiration  stops  for  a  brief  period  and  then  the 
expulsion  of  the  air  is  continued.     In  this  way  the  depres- 
sion of  the  flanks  is  not  gradual  and  continuous  as  it  is  in 
the  instance  of  the  horse  with  sound  lungs  but  it  is  stayed 
for  a  short  period  at  a  time  when  the  breath  is  about  half 
expelled  from  the  lungs. 

108.  Detection  of  Stable  Vices.     Horses  may  have  many 
stable  vices  that  detract  greatly  from  their  utility,  but  these 
cannot  be  discovered  as  a  rule  in  the  show  ring.     To  make 
a  satisfactory  examination  of  a  horse,  it  is  necessary  to  see 
it  in  the  stable,  then  have  it  harnessed,  hitched,  driven  and 
subjected  to  a  critical  examination,  and  after  these  things 
have  been  given  careful  consideration  it  will  be  only  after 
continuous  companionship  on  the  road  that  a  man  may  be 
said  to  truly  know  his  horse. 


58  JUDGING  HORSES 


VII.      OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  FOR   HORSES. 

THE  TROTTING  STANDARD — ADOPTED    BY   THE   AMERICAN   TROTTING 
REGISTER  ASSOCIATION. 

When  an  animal  meets  these  requirements  and  is  duly  registered 
it  shall  be  accepted  as  a  standard  bred  trotter: 

1.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse  and  a  reg- 
istered standard  trotting  mare. 

2.  A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse  pro- 
vided his  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  registered  standard  trot- 
ting horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  record  of  2:30  and  is  the  sire  of  three 
trotters  with  records  of  2:30  from  different  mares. 

3.  A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse,  and 
whose  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  registered  standard  trotting 
horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a  trotting  record  of  2:30  or  is  the 
dam  of  one  trotter  with  a  record  of  2:30. 

4.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse,  provided 
she  is  the  dam  of  two  trotters  with  records  of  2:30. 

5.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse,  provided 
her  first,  second  and  third  dams  are  each  sired  by  a  registered  stand- 
ard trotting  horse. 

THE  PACING  STANDARD. 

When  an  animal  meets  these  requirements  and  is  duly  registered, 
it  shall  be  accepted  as  a  standard  bred  pacer: 

1.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse  and  a  reg- 
istered standard  pacing  mare. 

2.  A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse  provided 
his  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  registered  standard  pacing 
horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  pacing  record  of  2:25,  and  is  the  sire  of 
three  pacers  with  records  of  2:25,  from  different  mares. 

3.  A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse  and 
whose  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  registered  standard  pacing 
horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a  pacing  record  of  2:25,  or  is  the  dam 
of  one  pacer  with  a  record  of  2:25. 

4.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse,  provided 
she  is  the  dam  of  two  pacers  with  records  of  2:25. 

5.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse,  provided 
her  first,  second  and  third  dams  are  each  sired  by  a  registered  stand- 
ard pacing  horse. 

6.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse  out  of  a 
registered  standard  pacing  mare,  or  a  registered  standard  pacing 
horse  out  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  mare 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   FOR    HORSES  55 

SCALE   OF    POINTS    FOR    SHETLAND     PONY— ADOPTED    BY    AMERICAN 
SHETLAND   PONY   CLUB. 

Constitution  —  Constitution  indicated  by  general  healthy 

appearance,  perfect  respiration,  brightness  of  eyes 10 

Size —  Ponies  over  four  years  old,  42  inches  and  under  in  height, 
two  points  to  be  deducted  for  every  inch  over  42  inches  up 
to  46  inches,  fractional  portions  to  count  as  full  inches. ...  25 

Head  —  Head  symmetrical,  rather  small  and  fine,  wide  between 

eyes,  ears  short  and  erect 10 

Body  —  Barrel  well  rounded,  back  short  and  level,  deep  chested, 

good  breast,  compact,  "pony  build  " 10 

Legs  —  Legs  muscular,  flat  boned,  hind  legs  not  cow-hocked  or 

too  crooked 25 

Mane  and  Tail  —  Foretop,  mane  and  tail  heavy 10 

Feet  —  Good ic 

IOO 

NOTE.  In  judging  horses  the  height  is  sometimes  a  subject  of  dis- 
cussion so  that  the  manner  of  determining  this  should  be  well  under- 
stood. It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  horse  should  stand  on  a 
perfectly  level  floor  and  the  measurement  made  to  the  highest  point 
of  the  withers.  The  position  of  the  horse  should  be  such  that  the 
head  at  the  poll  should  be  in  line  with  the  withers  and  this  parallel 
to  the  floor.  The  fore  legs  and  hind  legs  should  be  as  perpendicular 
to  the  floor  and  as  parallel  to  each  other  as  the  conformation  of  the 
horse  permits.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  spirit  level  in  the  cross  bar 
of  the  standard  should  indicate  that  it  is  being  held  properly.  The 
horse  should  be  measured  in  shoes  of  the  same  thickness  as  he  wears 
when  in  competition  in  the  show  ring. 


<§<!! 


JUDGING  CATTLE. 


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CHAPTER  II. 

JUDGING  CATTLE. 

109.  Method  of  Examination.  In  judging  cattle  in  the 
show  ring  the  most  satisfactory  plan  is  to  make  a  very  care- 
ful scrutiny  of  the  animal  as  it  stands  before  you;  then  ap- 
proaching it  from  the  front,  notice  the  head  and  neck  before 
placing  the  hands  upon  the  shoulder  to  review  the  various 
parts  of  the  body. 


I.      JUDGING   BBEF  CATTLE. 

110.  Method  of  Handling.  In  judging  beef  cattle  it  is  of 
much  importance  to  see  that  they  stand  properly  and  are  not 
held  so  as  to  hide  any  natural  defects  which  otherwise  would 
be  easily  seen.  They  should  stand  on  a  surface  as  level  as 
possible  with  the  legs  naturally  placed  under  them,  with  the 
head  held  straight  forward.  By  variations  from  this  it  is 
quite  possible  to  hide  from  the  examiner  as  he  makes  his 
first  inspection  many  of  the  natural  defects.  It  becomes 
very  easy  to  vastly  improve  the  handling  qualities  of  an 
animal  by  turning  the  head  towards  the  judge  or  to  make 
the  top  or  lower  lines  more  level  by  choosing  an  advantage- 
ous position.  In  moving  towards  the  animal  from  in  front, 
note  the  characteristics  of  the  head  and  neck  quickly  and 
then  placing  the  hand  upon  the  shoulder  and  using  the  tips 
of  the  fingers  feel  the  compactness  of  the  shoulder,  its  cover- 
ing and  the  smoothness  with  which  it  fits  to  the  body.  From 
this  point  it  is  usual  to  pass  to  the  back,  handling  this  region 


64  JUDGING   CATTLE 

very  carefully  as  the  back  rib  and  loin  is  the  most  valuable 
part  in  the  butcher's  point  of  view.  After  handling  the  back 
carefully,  the  covering  of  the  ribs  should  also  be  observed 
very  closely.  It  is  considered  a  good  method  for  determin- 
ing the  quality  of  the  flesh  to  gently  push  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  between  the  ribs.  If  there  is  no  natural  flesh  or  muscle 
there,  the  ends  of  the  fingers  are  easily  inserted  in  this 
region  but  if  the  flesh  is  of  the  best  quality  and  it  is  mostly 
muscle  the  ends  of  the  fingers  cannot  be  inserted  very  far 
between  the  ribs.  To  estimate  the  character  of  the  skin  and 
the  mellowness  of  the  flesh,  the  skin  is  generally  lifted  be- 
tween the  first  finger  and  the  thumb  and  its  quality  carefully 
noted.  Then  with  the  fingers  flat  gentle  pressure  against 
the  rib  reveals  the  mellowness  or  firmness  of  the  flesh.  The 
thickness  of  the  loin  is  an  exceedingly  important  point  and 
one  of  the  ways  of  determining  this  is  to  push  the 
back  of  the  hand  in  at  the  lower  level  of  the  loin  and  then 
note  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  loin  to  the  back  of  the 
hand.  Leaving  this  point  the  fullness  and  characteristics  of 
the  hind  quarter  are  observed,  then  the  fullness  of  the  flank 
and  the  cod,  which  make  the  criticism  of  the  one  side  of  the 
animal  complete.  Standing  squarely  behind  it,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  hind  quarter  is  noted  after  which  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  pass  down  the  other  side  very  similar  to  that  which 
has  been  followed  on  the  right  side. 

The  steer  may  be  considered  from  two  points  of  view.  The 
first  has  to  do  with  the  qualities  of  the  store  steer  or  feeder 
to  be  fattened,  while  the  other  refers  to  the  merits  of  the 
prime  steer  that  is  ready  for  the  butcher. 

III.  Store  Steers.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  some  com- 
munities for  the  stockmen  to  buy  young  steers  •  with  the 
object  of  feeding  them  for  market.  The  steers  are  generally 
procured  in  the  early  fall,  fed  through  most  of  the  winter 
months  and  put  on  the  market  in  the  spring  or  early  sum- 
mer. The  most  forcible  factors  in  determining  the  profits 


Aberdeen  Angus  steer  ADVANCE,  champion  International  Exposition, 
Chicago,  1900.  Bred  and  fed  by  Stanley  R.  Pierce,  Creston,  111.  Illustrating 
the  type  most  desirable  for  the  block  as  the  flesh  is  of  the  right  quality  and 
most  abundant  in  the  proper  places. 


Photograph  of  a  steer  selected  to  show  the  form  that  is  not  desirable 
either  from  the  standpoint  of  the  feeder  or  the  butcher, 


Photo  by  Hills 

Shorthorn  steer  BRITISHER,  illustrating  desirable  type  for  a  feeding  steer 
as  shown  in  a  short  face,  large  muzzle,  wide  forehead,  short  neck,  deep  «,hest, 
straight,  wide  back,  deep  ribs  and  smooth,  long  hind  quarters. 


Photo  obtained  through  kindness  of  Mr.  Georgesen. 

The  type  and  other  qualities  usually  indicative  of  an  undesirable  feeding 
steer,  showing  slim  face,  thin,  long  neck,  sharp  withers,  shallow  chest,  nar- 
row back,  thin  loin,  light  quarters,  long  legs  and  the  characteristic  expression 
of  the  steer  that  eats  most  and  makes  least  progress  in  the  feed  lot. 


JUDGING   BEEF   CATTLE  65 

from  this  work  is  the  skill  of  the  purchaser  in  selecting  ani- 
mals that  will  make  good  feeders  and  then  buying  them  at  a 
proper  price.  The  skill  lies  generally  in  being  able  to  esti- 
mate the  possibilities  of  improvement  in  the  animals  selected; 
and  to  do  this  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  calls  for  a  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  conduct  of  animals  in  the  feed  lot 
where  the  reasons  for  the  points  are  unfolded  and  tested. 

112.  Form  of  the  Feeder.     The  best  feeding  steers  are 
comparatively  wide,  round  and  deep  ribbed.     The  steer  that 
stands  high  from  the  ground,  light  in  the  flanks  and  shallow 
in  the  heart  girth  rarely  makes  a  good  feeder.     In  type  the 
form  of  the  store  steer  should  fill  out  a  parallelogram,  the  lines 
being  true  in  every  direction. 

It  should  be  broad  and  deep  in  front  and  this  should  be 
characteristic  of  the  hind  most  parts  as  well.  As  much 
width  as  possible  is  desirable  if  it  is  not  accompanied  with 
roughness  over  the  shoulder  or  the  hips  or  hooks.  It  is  not 
expected,  however,  that  a  store  steer  should  be  as  level  and 
smooth  in  form  as  the  finished  animal  ready  for  the  block. 
Stoutness  of  form  with  depth  of  body  are  usually  the  char- 
acteristics of  vigorous  feeders,  which  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  supposition  that  in  the  stout  individual  the  blood  cur- 
rents have  less  distance  to  travel  and  consequently  the 
circulation  is  more  active. 

113.  Quality.     The  possession  of  quality  does  not  seem  to 
have  much  influence  on  the  feeding  ability  of  the  steer  though 
it  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  value  of  the  steer  after  being 
fattened.     Animals  of  quality  usually  fatten  more  quickly 
than  those  that  are  rough  and  coarse,  though  if  the  latter 
are  exceptionally  vigorous,  which  is  generally  the  case,  they 
will  sometimes  make  greater  gains  than  those  having  quality 
because  of  delicacy.     Quality  in  the  steer  means  fine  bone, 
soft,  mellow  hide  and  silky  hair;  while  such  attributes  as  a 
very  rough,   heavy  frame,  coarse  joints,  prominent,  ragged 


66  JUDGING   CATTLE 

hips  and  rough,  open  shoulders  are  the  most  pronounced 
evidences  of  deficiency  in  this  feature. 

114.  Inferences  from  Good  Handling.     The  handling  of  a 
feeder  or  the  condition  of  the  hide  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
indications  that  may  be  observed.     If  the  skin  is  mellow  and 
elastic,  it  possesses  what  is  called  good  handling.     Such  a 
skin  is  invariably  associated  with  rapid  fattening  qualities, 
while  a  heavy,  stiff  hide  is  considered  to  indicate  slower  fat- 
tening.    The  previous  management  which  the  steers  have 
had  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  handling.    When  liberally 
fed  and  they  are  thrifty,  the  skin  has  the  softness  and  elas- 
ticity that  usually  accompanies  a  condition  which  has  been 
termed  by  stockmen  as  "sappy."     On  the  other  hand  if 
scrimped  in  their  feed  or  if  it  has  been  dry  without  anything 
of  a  succulent  nature  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  the  skin  becomes 
tightly  attached  to  the  frame  and  it  feels  dry  and  paper  like. 
In  animals  that  possess  good  handling,  when  the  hand  is 
placed  on  the  body  just  back  of  the  shoulder  and  pressed 
against  it,  there  is  a  soft  elastic  feel  to  the  touch  which  is 
only  found  in  animals  having  a  thick  coat  of  hair  of  fine 
quality,  mellow  skin  and  firm  flesh.     This  feature  of  good 
handling  cannot  be  magnified  too  much  in  judging  all  classes 
of  beef  stock,  for  it  not  only  reflects  the  thriftiness  of  the 
animal  at  the  time  but  also  foretells  its  future  progress. 

115.  Features  of  the  Head.     The  features  and  proportions 
of  the  head  are  usually  a  condensed  reflection  of  the  rest  of 
the  form.     A  broad,  short  head  is  invariably  accompanied 
with  a  thick,  wide,  low  set  body  and  the  long,  slim  face  is 
generally  associated  with  the   greater  length  of  body  and 
more  narrowness.     There  is  a  co-relation  of  parts  here  as 
elsewhere  that  is  seldom  at  fault  and  no  other  part  offers 
such  a  field  of  study  in  this  regard  as  that  of  the  head.     The 
mouth  and  the  lips  should  be  large,  making  the  juncture  01 
the  muzzle  and  the  face  appear  to  be  somewhat  concave. 
From  the  muzzle  to  the  eyes  the  aspect  of  the  face  should 


JUDGING   BEEF   CATTLE  67 

appear  triangular  with  the  base  at  the  muzzle  and  the  top  at 
the  line  running  between  the  eyes.  The  openings  of  the 
nostrils  should  be  very  prominent  indicating  that  there  is  an 
abundance  of  lung  capacity.  The  lower  jaw  should  appear 
strong  and  well  clothed  with  muscle.  The  eyes  should  be 
large,  somewhat  prominent  yet  placid,  indicating  a  quiet, 
generous  temperament.  Quietness  and  laziness  are  attributes 
of  the  temperament  favorable  to  the  process  of  fattening  and 
we  know  that  animals  of  lymphatic  temperament  have  both 
these  characteristics.  The  head  should  not  be  long  between 
the  eye  and  the  horn  and  the  poll  should  be  somewhat 
prominent  and  topped  with  a  mass  of  wavy  hair.  A  fine 
texture  is  desired  in  the  horn  and  it  should  be  somewhat  flat 
in  shape  and  in  no  sense  coarse.  The  ear  should  be  neatly 
attached  to  the  head,  .pointed  and  covered  inside  and  on  the 
edge  with  a  profuse  growth  of  fine,  silky  hair. 

116.  Neck— Short,  Full.      The  neck  should   be  short,  in 
fact  many  well  bred  steers  appear  as  if  they  had  none.     The 
top  line  from  the  base  of  the  poll  should  run  back  straight 
and  almost  level  with  the  top  of  the  shoulder.     The  blade  of 
the  latter  should  fit  closely  to  the  body  with  a  nice  slope  so 
that  the  animal  may  have  a  gay  carriage.     In  steers  that  are 
very  coarse  in  the  shoulder  with  the  blade  standing  out  from 
the  body,  this  part  is  apt  to  show  bare  of  flesh  giving  also  a 
marked  appearance  of  shrinkage  in  the  girth  just  behind  the 
blade. 

117.  Chest — Wide,  Deep,  Full.     In  this  region  the  steer 
should  appear  fully  developed  with  the  brisket  light  but  yet 
far  enough  advanced  to  fill  out  the  squareness  of  the  frame 
to  the  proper  degree.     It  will  be  found  frequently  that  the 
narrow  chested  animal  is  a  poor  feeder,  which  makes  but 
little  progress  in  proportion  to  the  feed   that  it  eats.     In 
addition  to  the  chest  being  wide  it  should  also  be  deep.    The 
bottom  of  it  should  come  down  well  between  the  fore  legs 
with  no  shrinkage  behind  these  as  may  be  noticed  frequently 


68  JUDGING    CATTLE 

in  animals  that  are  deficient  in  constitution.  Such  animals 
do  not  have  the  capacity  to  make  feed  into  flesh  and  fat 
economically  as  they  are  deficient  in  vital  force  or  constitu- 
tion. 

118.  Ribs— Long,    Hooped.     These   should  be  long   and 
hooped  so  as  to  give  an  abundance  of  room  to  the  vital 
organs,  the  lungs  and  the  heart,  and  also  provide  a  place  for 
the  storage  of  food  in  large  quantities.     A  large,  deep  chest 
and  a  capacious  stomach  are  good  indications  that  an  ani- 
mal has  the  capacity  to  utilize  large  quantities  of  food  and 
make  rapid  progress  in  fattening.     The  hind  ribs  should  be 
comparatively  long   bringing  the  plates  and  the  flanks  on 
almost  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  fore  part  of  the  body. 
The  loin  should  be  wide  leaving  the  ribs  on  a  level  and  join- 
ing the  hind  quarters  with  little  departure  from  a  straight 
line. 

119.  Hips — Smooth;  Long  Hind  Quarters.     While  width  is 
desirable  at  the  hips  yet  smoothness  should  not  be  sacrificed 
to  secure  this.     When  the  hips  are  too  wide  apart  they  are 
likely  to  be   prominent   and   appear   coarse.     It  would   be 
impossible  to  finish  such  an  animal  without  the  hind  quarters 
appearing  rough  and  very  deficient  in  covering.     The  hind 
quarters  should  be  long  and  carry  out  the  squareness  of  form 
which  should  be  characteristic  of  the  fore  quarters  of  the 
ideal  feeding  steer. 

120.  Judging  Fat  Steers.     In  judging  the  finished  or 
fattened  steer,  the  view  must  be  largely  that  of  the  butcher. 
The  butcher  invariably  prefers  animals  that  are  small  in  frame; 
the  low  set,  thick  sort  that  yield  heavily  in  the. most  profitable 
parts.  The  finished  steer  should  also  be  of  fine  quality  so  that 
the  quantity  of  offal  may  be  small,  as  this  has  much  to  do  with 
the  profitableness  of  the  carcass  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
butcher.     In  coarse  steers  fully  one-half  of  their  live  weight 
is  made  up  of  what  is  largely  waste  to  the  butcher.     If  the 


Hereford   bull,    DAL.E,   champion   of    breed,    International 
Chicago,  1900.    Owned  by  C.  Graves,  Bunker  Hill,  Indiana. 


Exposition, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  HEREFORD   CATTLE 

1*HIS  BREED,  which  derives  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  England,  is 
most  popular  in  color  and  markings  when  showing  a  dark  claret  or  cherry 
with  white  face,  throat,  chest,  legs,  belly,  twist,  and  small  stripe  of  white  on  neck 
and  before  shoulder.  The  type  represented  by  this  breed  is  that  suitable  for  the 
largest  production  of  beef,  as  it  is  low  set  and  broad,  heavy  in  fore  quarters,  ful  1 
deep  chest;  level,  wide  back;  wide,  thick  loin  and  full  quarters.  In  those  repre- 
senting the  best  of  the  breed  the  covering  of  flesh  is  usually  thick  while  the  coat 
possesses  a  thickness  and  mossiness  which  is  very  conducive  1o  the  general  thrift.- 
The  form  represents  that  which  is  invariably  associated  with  a  strong  constitu- 
tion, vigor  and  prepotency,  and  these  qualities  are  sometimes  so  strongly  in  evi- 
dence as  to  give  rise  to  undue  coarseness  and  roughness  which  should  necessarily 
be  discouraged  in  the  show  ring.  Two  of  the  cardinal  qualities  of  the  breed  are 
early  maturity  and  grazing  attributes,  and  as  these  have  their  or'gin  in  natural 
vigor  and  activity  those  qualities  of  form  and  general  appearance  which  eon- 
tiibute  to  these  should  have  prominence  in  rendering  decisions. 


Aberdeen  Angus  bull,  PRINCE  ITO,  the  property  of  Stanley  R.  Pierce, 
Creston,  Illinois.    Champion  of  the  breed,  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  ABERDEEN  ANGUS  CATTLE 

1PHE  characteristic  color  of  this  breed  of  Scotch  cattle  is  black  without  any 
"white  beyond  the  udder  or  above  the  under  line.  The  type  of  the' breed  is 
favorable  to  the  production  of  the  highest  quality  of  meat  in  the  greatest  quantity. 
Smoothness  is  a  leading  feature,  this  being  encouraged  by  the  type  which  is  noted 
for  the  rotundity  of  form  with  symmetry  and  quality,  and  it  should  be  noticeable 
in  the  show  animal  by  the  evenness  with  which  the  flesh  covers  the  carcass  over  all 
regions.  The  head  is  hornless  without  any  appearance  of  scurs,  and  it  should  be 
surmounted  by  a  sharp  polls  neck  free  from  loose  skin  with  a  strong  shoulder 
vein;  shoulder  oblique,  fitting  close  to  the  body  and  not  rough  at  the  top;  ribs 
deep,  circular;  hips  moderately  far  apart,  smoothly  covered  ;  rump,  Ion's,  level, 
smooth;  thighs  muscular,  twist  low  and  full;  quarters  low,  full  and  rounded.  'The 
general  form  is  cylindrical,  covered  with  even  depth  of  mellow  flesh  and  hide  that 
is  pliable  yet  not  thin,  and  coated  with  fine,  blcck  hair.  See  official  scale  of  points, 
page  90. 


JUDGING   BEEF   CATTLE  69 

bone  is  fine,  the  skin  and  hair  of  good  quality,  there  is  much 
less  waste  than  if  they  were  coarse. 

121.  Handling  —  Indicates  Condition  and  Quality  of  Meat. 
The   handling  quality  of   the  prime  steer  has  considerable 
value  in  the  butcher's  view.    On  this  he  relies  for  indications 
of  the  steer's  condition,  and  also  the  quality  of  the  meat. 
If  the  covering  of  flesh  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  steer 
and  it  is  springy  and  mellow  to  the  touch,  it  is  considered 
ready  for  the  block.     If  in  denting  the  side  with  the  finger 
the  dent  lingers  some  time  the  condition  is  due  to  soft,  flabby 
fat  that  brings  but  a  small  price  at  the  butcher's  stalls. 
This  is  quite  common  in  finishing  steers  to  find  them  flabby 
in  places,  most  commonly  over  the  loin  and  about  the  root 
of  the  tail.     This  patchiness  is  due  to  the  unevenness  of  the 
fat  distribution  and  it  is  a  very  undesirable  feature. 

122.  Condition.     A  sure  sign  of  the  condition  of  a  steer 
and  its  fitness  for  the  block  is  fullness  of  the  scrotum  or  cod. 
When  a  steer  is  ready  for  the  butcher  the  scrotum  will  be 
soft  and  large.     The  condition  of  the  flank  is  another  sign 
of  ripeness.     This  should  be  thick,  full,  pendent,  and  the 
lower  lines  of  it  should  be  nearly  even  with  the  bottom  lines 
of  the  body.     Another  indication  considered  very  reliable  is 
the  development  of  tongue  fat  or  the  fullness  which  appears 
at  the  root  of  the  tongue. 

123.  Relation  of  Parts.     In  the  finished  steer  from  the 
butcher's  standpoint  the  head  is  of  little  value,  it  should  be 
in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  body  and  not  too  large,  as 
that  means  waste.     The  neck  should  be  short  and  thick. 
The   shoulder  vein   or  the  juncture  of  the  neck  and  the 
shoulder  should  be  full,  giving  both  these  parts  a  character- 
istic smoothness  due  to  the  base  of  the  neck  swelling  nicely 
over  the  shoulder  blade.     The  latter  should  be  well  covered 
and  evenly  packed  on  top.     The  brisket  should  not  be  too 
heavy,  as  this  is  very  cheap  meat,  but  only  advanced  enough 
to  contribute  to  the  desired  squareness  of  form.     Just  back  of 


70  JUDGING   CATTLE 

the  shoulder  there  should  be  no  slackness  in  the  girth.  The 
ribs  should  be  well  covered  with  springy,  mellow,  yet  firm 
flesh.  The  loin  should  be  broad  and  thick  ;  the  reason  for 
this  is  that  there  are  more  valuable  cuts  in  the  broad,  thick 
loin  than  in  the  thin,  narrow  one,  and  this  region  in  addition 
has  a  high  value  in  the  view  of  the  butcher.  The  hips 
should  be  smoothly  covered  and  their  breadth  should  be  car- 
ried back  uniformly.  The  hind  quarters  should  be  long,  as 
this  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  carcass.  The  flesh 
should  extend  far  down  the  legs  with  the  twist  deep  and 
plump.  Viewed  from  the  side  the  top  line  of  the  animal 
and  the  long  line  should  be  parallel  or  nearly  so. 

124.  Value  of  Cuts.  The  value  of  the  different  parts 
may  be  said  to  be  a  point  of  first  consideration  with  the 
butcher.  Dividing  the  steer  into  parts  according  to  the  way 
the  butcher  cuts  them,  we  find  that  the  head  is  only  worth 
about  ten  or  fifteen  cents  altogether,  while  the  neck  only  has 
a  value  of  from  three  to  seven  cents.  Then  the  cut  called 
the  chuck,  which  runs  from  the  top  of  the  shoulder  to  the 
beginning  of  the  forearm  and  above  the  brisket,  is  worth 
from  five  to  ten  cents  per  pound.  The  brisket  as  a  whole 
only  has  a  value  of  from  four  to  eight  cents,  while  the  fore 
leg  from  the  point  where  it  joins  the  body  to  the  chuck, 
known  as  the  clod,  is  worth  about  six  cents.  The  crops,  or 
as  the  butchers  term  it,  the  ribs,  which  consist  of  that  part 
just  back  of  the  shoulder,  is  worth  seven  cents  in  the  poor 
steer  against  sixteen  cents  per  pound  in  the  best.  The  region 
just  below  the  crops  known  as  the  fore  flank  or  the  plates, 
has  a  value  usually  from  four  to  eight  cents  per  pound. 
Following  this  comes  the  loin  and  this  varies  from  ten  to 
twenty  cents.  The  upper  part  of  the  hind  quarter  has  a 
value  of  about  ten  cents  per  pound,  while  the  lower  part, 
ranges  from  ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound  in  the  best 
steers.  The  neck,  brisket  and  plates  are  the  cheapest 
portions.  In  regard  to  ribs  the  two  end  ribs  go  with 


Galloway  heifer,  DRUID'S  PRIDE  20121.  Calved  November  20, 1901.  Bred 
and  owned  by  O.  II.  Swigart,  Champaign,  111.  First  in  yearling  class  and 
junior  champion  at  International  Exposition,  Chicago,  1903. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  GALLOWAY  CATTLE 

*|*HIS  BREED,  deriving  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  Scotland,  is  black  in 
color,  with  no  white  admissible  excent  on  the  udder  or  below  the  under  line. 
The  type  represents  a  form  that  is  thick,  close  to  the  ground  and  symmetrical,  with 
long,  wavy  and  thick  coat  of  hair.  As  hardiness  and  strength  of  constitution  are 
leading  features,  there  should  be  every  indication  of  general  thrift  and  ruggedness 
in  a  representative  of  the  breed. 

The  scale  of  points  adopted  by  the  Council  of  the  Galloway  Cattle  Breeder* 
Association  of  Great  Britain  in  1883  gives  the  features  of  the  breed  in  detail  a:. 
follows : 

COLOR—  Black,  with  a  brownish  tinge. 

HEAD  —  Short  and  wide,  with  broad  forehead  and  wide  nostrils;  without  the 
slightest  symptoms  of  horns  or  scurs. 

EYES  —  Large  and  prominent, 

EARS  —  Moderate  in  length  and  broad,  pointing  forward  and  upward;  fringe  o* 
long  hairs. 

NECK  —  Moderate  in  length,  clean  and  filling  well  into  the  shoulders,  the  top  in 
a  line  with  the  back  in  a  female,  and  in  a  male  naturally  rising  with  age. 

BODY  —  Deep,  rounded  and  symmetrical. 

SHOULDERS— Fine  and  straight,  moderately  wide  above;  coarse  shoulder 
points  and  sharper  high  shoulders  are  objectionable. 

BREAST  — Full  and  deep. 

BACK  AND  RUMP—  Straight. 

RIBS—  Deep  and  well  sprung. 

LOIN  AND  SIRLOIN—  Well  filled. 

HOOK  BONES  —  Not  prominent. 

HIND  QUARTERS  — Long,  moderately  wide  and  well  filled. 

FLANK  — Deep  and  full. 

THIGHS—  Broad,  straight  and  well  l«t,  down  to  hock;  rounded  buttocks  are  very 
objectionable. 

LEGS  — Short  and  clean,  with  fine  bone. 

TAIL  — Well  set  on  and  moderately  thick. 

SKIN—  Mellow  and  moderately  thick. 

HAIR  — Soft  and  wavy,  with  a  mossy  undercoat;  wiry  and  curly  hair  isverj 
objectionable 


Photo  by  Reid. 

Red  Polled  cow,  DBLPHINE,  winner  of  first  prize  at  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  Show  (England),  in  1899. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  RED  POLLED   CATTLE 

^HIS  BREED  which  originated  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  England,  have  been  polled 
and  red  in  color  and  otherwise  possessed  the  type  characteristics  which  now 
identify  them  for  a  century  past.  The  type  of  the  breed  should  represent  a  high 
combination  of  beefing  qualities  with  utility  for  dairy  purposes.  This  means  a 
form  that  carries  a  covering  of  flesh  and  is  especially  developed  in  those  parts 
which  produce  the  best  quality  of  meat.  The  head  should  be  clearly  defined  in  its 
features,  the  face  being  clean  cut,  the  eye  full  and  largo,  the  ear  medium  size  and 
the  poll  sharp  without  any  fullness  at  the  sides  where  the  horns  are 
usually  located.  The  throat  should  be  free  from  looseness  and  while  fine 
should  run  easily  into  a  somewhat  thick  neck  which  swells  smoothly  over  the 
shoulder.  The  chest  should  be  both  broad  and  deep  and  the  body  should  consist 
of  a  back  moderately  broad  and  well  covered  and  a  rib  that  is  deep  and  somewhat 
round;  the  loin  should  have  width  with  smoothness  due  to  flesh  and  the  same  should 
be  characteristic  of  the  hind  quarter.  Moderate  meatiness  is  allowable  in  this 
region  and  In  the  cow  the  udder  should  be  specially  well  developed,  large  and  cir- 
cular and  the  teats  of  good  size  and  well  placed.  The  udder  should  be  the  sponsor 
for  the  dairy  qualities  while  the  general  form  and  the  condition  should  be  indica- 
tive of  the  beefing  propensities.  In  the  show  ring  the  tendencies  towards  beef  pro- 
duction find  more  favor  than  those  considered  conducive  to  dairy  qualities.  See 
official  scale  of  points  page  94. 


JUDGING   BEEF  CATTLE  71 

the  hind  quarters,  while  the  two  second  ribs  in  the  fore 
quarters  sell  from  ten  cents  upwards,  as  'they  are  the  best 
cuts  in  that  part.  The  two  first  ribs  in  the  front  quarter 
have  a  value  of  ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound.  The  wing1 
cut  of  the  sirloin  grows  narrower  as  it  runs  down  but  it  still 
affords  a  large  and  valuable  cut  in  finished  steers.  Porter- 
house steak  and  sirloin  taken  from  the  parts  which  run  from 
the  front  of  the  hooks  to  the  end  of  *he  wing  cut  (that  is 
where  the  fore  quarter  is  separated  from  the  hind  quarter)  is 
worth  from  ten  to  twenty  cents  per  pound,  making  this 
region  the  most  valuable  of  the  steer.  The  rump  steak 
which  comes  from  the  lower  part  of  the  hind  quarter  includ- 
ing the  thigh  and  twist,  has  only  a  value  of  ten  to  twelve 
cents  per  pound.  When  it  is  understood  that  the  average 
percentage  of  pounds  that  a  steer  possesses  is  usually  sixty, 
it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  butcher  must  pay  close  attention  to 
the  form  which  yields  the  smallest  percentage  of  offal  and 
returns  the  most  valuable  cuts.  From  the  foregoing  we  see 
that  the  animal  from  the  butcher's  point  of  view  depends 
mostly  on  its  quality  and  then  on  its  form,  and  in  regard  to 
the  latter  we  find  that  the  value  of  the  animal  grows  greater 
as  we  pass  from  the  fore  quarters  towards  the  hinder  parts. 
It  is  important  to  know  that  the  feeder's  ideal  does  not  differ 
markedly  from  the  best  for  the  butcher,  except  that  the  latter 
has  been  matured  and  fattened. 


Location  of  the  cuts  in  the  dressed  carcass  of  the  steer,"showing  also  the 
pounds  and  the  percentage  returned  by  each  part;  1.  Shank;  2.  Round; 
3.  Rump;  4.  Loin;  5.  Rib;  6.  Flank;  7.  Plate;  8.  Chuck;  9.  Clod;  10.  Neck. 
Tenderloins,  Sirloin  Butts,  and  Strips  cut  from  No.  4.  Rib  Rolls  cut  from 
No,  5. 


72  JUDGING   CATTLE 


SCALE   OF   POINTS   FOR   BEEF  CATTLE  —  STEERS. 

<B  8 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Weight,  score  according  to  age  ............................  io 

Form,  straight  topline  and  underline  ;  deep,  broad,  low  set, 

stylish  ----  .  ......  .  .............................  ......  io 

Quality,  firm  handling,  hair  fine  ;  pliable  skin  ;  dense  bone  ; 

evenly  fleshed  .......................................  io 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  especially  in 

regions  of  valuable  cuts  ................................  io 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Muzzle,  broad  ;  mouth  large  ;  jaw  wide  ;  nostrils  large  .....  i 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid  ..................................  i 

Face,  short,  quiet  expression  ...............................  i 

Forehead,  broad,  full  .....................................  i 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture  ..........  .  .  .................  i 

Horns,  fine  texture,  oval,  medium  size  ......  .  ..............  i 

Neck,  thick,  short  ;  throat  clean  ...............  ....  ........  i 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder  Vein,  full  ........................................  2 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth.  .  .  t  .  .  2 

Brisket,  advanced,  breast  wide  ,  ...........................  i 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping  ...................  i 

Legs,  straight,  short  ;  arm  full  ;  shank  fine,  smooth  ...  ......  2 

BODY: 

Chest,  full,  deep,  wide  ;  girth  large  ;  crops  full  ..............  4 

Ribs,  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed  .......  .  ..................  8 

Back,  broad,  straight,  smooth,  even  .......................  io 

Loin,  thick,  broad  ........................................  8 

Flank,  full,  even,  with  underline  ...........................  2 

HIND  QUARTERS  : 

Hips,  smoothly  covered  ;  distance  apart  in  proportion  with 

other  parts    ..........................   ...............  2 

Rump,  long,  wide,  even,  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy  .......  2 

Pin  Bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart  .......................  i 

Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide  ..................................  2 

Twist,  deep,  plump  ......................................  2 

•     Purse,  full,  indicating  fleshiness  ............................  2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth  ....................  2 

Total..                                                                                  .  100 


Highland  bull,  LAOICH  1260.  The  property  of  J.  R.  Campbell,  Shinness, 
Scotland.  A  winner  of  numerous  first  and  champion  prizes  at  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  Show  of  England  and  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society 
Sbow  of  Scotland.  The  upper  illustration  shows  this  bull  when  champion  of 
the  breed  at  .two  years  of  age,  while  the  lower  one  shows  him  again  when  in  the 
same  honored  position  at  six  years  of  age.  A  comparison  of  these  photographs, 
both  taken  by  Reid,  is  very  instructive  as  they  clearly  indicate  the  develop- 
ment which  takes  place  as  a  bull  approaches  maturity. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  HIGHLAND   CATTLE 

1*HIS  BREED  which  comes  from  the  highlands  of  Scotland  is  noted  especially 
for  their  robustness  and  the  high  quality  of  the  meat  which  they  produce 
In  type  they  exemplify  the  characteristics  which  we  associate  with  constitution, 
being  very  deep  and  full  chested,  strong  and  rugged  framed  with  a  dense  and 
long  coat  which  protects  them  from  the  exposure  to  mountain  conditions.  The 
head  is  somewhat  shaggy  with  bright,  piercing  eye  and  the  horns  strong  and  long. 
The  neck  is  short  the  chest  deep  and  full  and  the  fore  quarter  shows  unusual  devel- 
opment especially  in  the  region  of  the  vital  organs.  The  back  is  long  and  level  and 
the  quarter  well  covered  and  lengthy.  The  general  form  is  massive  and  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  ruggedness  is  added  to  by  a  thick  shaggy  coat  of  various  shades 
of  dun,  black  and  sometimes  brindle  in  color. 


Hereford  bull,  SIB  BREDWEI.I,  63686,  by  Corrector.  Champion  at  the  Trans- 
Mississippi  Exposition,  1898.  Bred  by  T.  F.  B.  Sotham  of  Chillicothe,  Mo. 
Purchased  by  Col.  C.  Slaughter,  of  Texas,  for  85,000. 


Rear  view  of  SIB  BHKDWELL  63C85,  showing  the  extent  to  which  it  Is  pos- 
sible for  a  bull  to  be  developed  in  the  most  valuable  parts  for  meat  produc- 
tion. Note  the  covering  of  the  back,  loin,  fullness  and  depth  of  the  hind 
quarters. 


JUDGING   BEEF   STOCK    FOR    BREEDING    PURPOSES  73 

1 1 .      JULGING  BEEF  STOCK  FOR  BREEDING  PURPOSES. 

In  judging  beef  stock  for  breeding  purposes,  the  breeder 
must  have  in  view  the  demands  of  his  own  interests,  and 
yet  those  of  the  feeder  and  butcher  must  also  receive  due 
consideration.  For  this  reason  the  desirable  qualities  that 
are  sought  for  in  feeding  stock,  the  features  that  make  the 
animal  valuable  to  the  butcher  and  the  attributes  that  the 
breeder  knows  to  be  of  value,  must  all  have  proportionate 
consideration.  Those  of  the  feeder's  and  the  butcher's  type 
have  been  discussed,  so  that  it  is  required  to  comment  only 
on  the  peculiar  features  that  are  especially  valuable  from  the 
breeder's  point  of  view.  There  are  two  features  of  this 
kind  that  because  of  their  importance  deserve  special  empha- 
sis in  the  judging  of  breeding  stock  in  the  beef  classes,  and 
these  are  the  possession  of  all  the  evidences  of  constitution 
in  combination  with  deep  natural  flesh.  The  breeder  to 
appreciate  his  work  must  rely  greatly  on  the  constitution  of 
his  animals,  for  it  is  this  that  guarantees  thrift  and  vigorous 
reproduction. 

The  other  feature  of  special  importance  in  beef  stock  is 
that  of  natural  flesh.  Natural  flesh  means  the  possession 
of  muscle  or  red  meat  with  which  an  animal  must  be  born  to 
make  a  carcass  for  the  butcher's  block  that  is  properly 
mixed  in  fat  and  lean. 

There  is  no  feature  of  more  value  in  the  breeding  of  beef 
stock  than  that  of  having  natural  flesh  characteristic  of  all 
animals  in  the  herd,  and  there  is  likely  no  other  quality 
which  is  transmitted  with  more  certainty  than  this. 

125.  Judging  Beef  Bulls.  In  form  and  condition  those 
qualities  which  mark  the  feeder's  and  butcher's  ideal  should 
be  strikingly  shown  in  the  beef  sire.  As  already  mentioned 
there  are  two  features  that  require  special  emphasis,  as  they 
are  especially  valuable  in  the  breeding  herd  of  beef  cattle 
and  consequently  should  be  possessed  in  a  marked  degree  by 
the  head  of  the  herd.  Reference  is  made  to  constitution  and 


74  JUDGING   CATTLE 

depth  or  wealth  of  natural  flesh.  A  careful  ?,tudy  of  the 
work  of  those  breeders  who  have  made  a  name  in  the  breed- 
ing  of  beef  cattle  will  bear  out  the  assertion  that  every  one 
of  them  highly  appreciated  these  two  qualities.  To  illus- 
trate this  point  we  may  use  the  most  marked  example  in 
recent  years,  by  referring  to  the  work  ol  two  of  the  most 
successful  breeders  of  beef  cattle,  Amos  and  Anthony 
Cruickshank,  of  Sittyton,  Scotland,  as  their  work  bears  out 
the  value  of  the  two  features  that  have  been  selected  for 
more  prominence  than  others.  Two  of  the  best  sires  that 
were  used  in  their  herd,  Champion  of  England  and  Roan 
Gauntlet,  have  been  described  by  a  recent  writer  (Prof.  T. 
F.  Jamieson,  in  the  London  Live  Stock  Journal)  as  posses- 
sing this  quality  in  an  inordinate  degree,  though  they  had 
other  features  of  minor  importance  which,  however,  would 
cause  some  judges  to  overlook  such  animals  in  a  show  ring. 
Referring  to  the  Champion  of  England,  this  writer  states 
that  his  produce  were  better  than  those  of  any  other  bull 
used  at  Sittyton,  asserting  that  "they  were  large,  growthy, 
healthy,  thriving  beasts,  with  straight  backs,  deep  ribs  and 
good  hair  :  heavy  carcasses  on  short  legs  ;  often  not  so  styl- 
ish and  neat  in  their  hind  quarters,  for  they  lacked  that 
finish  in  their  frames  that  would  have  brought  them  to  the 
top  in  the  Royal  or  Highland  society's  shows.  A  marked 
feature  was  their  early  development.  No  other  bull's  calves 
came  out  so  strong  as  young  animals.  Champion  himself 
was  in  color  a  roan,  of  good  size  but  not  extra  large,  stood 
on  short  legs,  had  a  deep-ribbed,  heavy  carcass,  a  strong 
back,  which  so  far  from  shrinking  at  all  at  the  loins  or 
middle  rather  tenc'ed  to  arch  up  there.  He  had  a  slight 
drop  from  the  hooks  to  the  rump  which  detracted  from  his 
appearance,  but  had  good  hind  quarters,  was  heavy  and  full 
in  his  thighs,  unusually  good  in  his  fore  ribs  and  had  a  fine 
elastic  skin  with  good  hair. ' ' 


COUNCILLOR.  MILLIONAIRE.  INGRAM'S  STYLE. 

Yearling  Shorthorn  bulls,  first,  second  and  third  at  R.  A.  S.  E.  Show, 
Birmingham.  INGRAM'S  STYLE  exhibited  by  Mr.  John  Handley  (first  prize); 
MILLIONAIRE,  exhibited  by  Messrs.  G.  and  H.  Bickford  (second  prize); 
COUNCILLOR,  exhibited  by  H.  M.  the  Queen,  (third  prize). 


Reproduced  from  Bibby's  Quarterly 

Three  Hereford  prize  winners  at  Birmingham  (England)  Fat  Stock  Show, 
flrst,  second  and  third  in  the  same  class.  The  left  hand  animal,  GARNISH. 
took  first  prize  ;  the  middle  one,  GRACE,  third  prize.  The  right  hand  ani- 
mal took  the  second  prize  in  the  same  class.  First  and  third  prize  winners 
both  the  property  of  the  Right  Honorable  the  Earl  of  Coventry,  president 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society.  The  second  prize  winner  is  the  property 
of  G.  H.  Baker,  Esq.,  The  Hill,  Bridgnorth. 


Two  prize  winning  Aberdeen-Angus  representatives  from  the  herd  01 
W.  A.  McHenry,  Denison,  Iowa.  The  cow  shown  in  the  upper  corner  of  the 
plate  is  LUCIA  OF  ESTILL,  a  frequent  prize  winner,  while  the  lower  one  shows 
BARBARA  OP  DENISON  13th,  a  yearling  heifer  that  was  a  frequent  prize  win- 
ner in  tl?e>  state  fair  circuit  of  1900. 


Photo  by  Breeders  Gazette. 

Group  of  Herefords  from  the  herd  of  K.  B.  Armour,  Kansas  City,  Mo, 
This  group  illustrates  the  uniform  marking  and  conformation  for  beef  pro- 
duction which  is  eminently  desirable  in  a  breeding  herd. 


Commenting  on  Roan  Gauntlet,  this  writer  says  :  ' '  Roan 
Gauntlet  was  a  lightish  roan  color,  with  a  deep  heavy  carcass 
on  shortish  legs.  For  size,  quality,  hair  and  substance  he 
was  all  right ;  he  was  well  let  down  in  his  hind  quarters  and 
his  ribs  sprung  out  well  from  his  back,  but  inclined  to  flatten 
lower  down.  He  had  a  biggish  head  and  his  face  was  cov- 
ered with  very  curly  hair.  The  stock  got  by  Roan  Gauntlet 
were,  like  those  of  Champion  of  England,  of  good  size  and 
remarkable  for  their  early  development,  natural  depth  of 
flesh  and  quality."  These  are  the  qualities  that  the  breeder 
desires  to  have  perpetuated  in  the  produce  of  his  herd,  and 
they  are  also  the  qualities  that  the  feeder  desires  and  the 
butcher  requires  in  the  animals  he  buys.  In  addition  to 
them  the  beef  sire  should  have  the  features  of  masculinity 
that  attach  themselves  to  cattle  very  strikingly  apparent. 
The  face  should  be  broad,  the  head  burly,  the  horns  strong 
but  not  coarse,  and  the  crest  full  and  prominent.  There 
should  be  a  marked  appearance  of  massiveness  presented  in 
the  front  view  and  the  hind  quarters  should  not  in  any  sense 
be  feminine ;  that  is,  they  should  not  have  the  shortness 
and  width  and  roughness  that  are  usually  associated  with 
those  of  the  other  sex. 

126.  Judging  Beef  Cows.  In  judging  beef  cows  the 
preference  should  be  given  those  that  show  constitution, 
wealth  of  natural  flesh  and  feminine  character.  Constitution 
in  the  female  is  of  as  much  importance  as  it  is  in  the  sire, 
and  its  value  cannot  be  overestimated  in  the  breeding  herd. 
The  question  of  condition  or  flesh  in  this  class  constantly 
challenges  the  judgment  of  the  judge,  as  it  is  very  frequent 
that  a  good  cow  of  excellent  type  and  style  competes  in  the 
show  ring  with  an  indifferent  animal  in  high  flesh.  While 
this  is  an  occurrence  where  every  instance  will  most  likely 
call  for  a  different  judgment,  yet  it  may  be  said  that  the 
preference  should  be  given  to  the  cow  that  is  lacking  in  con- 
dition rather  than  the  poorer  individual  that  is  highly 


76  JUDGING   CATTLE 

pampered.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  cows 
are  probably  more  apt  to  be  rough  and  patchy,  yet  this  is  a 
feature  that  should  always  be  condemned.  Over  the  ribs 
there  are  apt  to  be  creases,  or  around  the  tail  the  fat  may  be 
accumulated  in  bunches  or  the  back  may  show  patches, 
"ties"  or  unevenness  of  flesh.  Though  not  often  trans- 
mitted, yet  this  tendency  to  patchiness  should  be  discount- 
enanced, as  it  is  an  undesirable  condition  in  all  fat  stock. 

127.  Judging  Young  Beef  Stock.  In  judging  young  beef 
stock  the  peculiar  feature  to  which  much  importance  should 
be  attached  is  that  of  early  maturity.  Early  maturity  is  a 
profitable  characteristic  to  encourage  in  beef  animals  and  for 
that  reason  should  be  given  all  possible  prominence  in  the 
show  ring.  The  young  animals  that  show  an  early  tendency 
to  put  on  an  even  and  somewhat  firm  and  deep  covering  of 
flesh  and  at  the  same  time  show  size,  constitution  and  qual- 
ity are  the  ones  that  should  have  the  preference  of  the  judge. 


III.      JUDGING   DAIRY 

To  estimate  the  merits  of  dairy  cows  when  giving  milk 
there  is  no  method  so  satisfactory  as  the  actual  records  made 
with  the  Babcock  test  and  the  scales.  Having  the  weight 
of  milk  yielded,  the  percentage  of  fat  in  it,  duration  of  the 
milking  season  and  period  of  pregnancy  together  with  the 
amount  of  feed  consumed,  the  merit  of  a  cow  for  dairy  pur- 
poses may  be  rated  accurately.  But  even  all  these  details 
will  not  completely  express  the  meritorious  qualities  that  it 
is  possible  for  a  dairy  cow  to  possess;  for  the  breeder  has  in 
mind  some  other  qualities  that  he  desires,  chief  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  ability  of  the  cow  to  produce 
calves  of  the  merit  of  herself  and  to  continue  doing  this  for  a 
number  of  years.  To  attempt  to  encompass  all  the  merits 
that  any  domesticated  animals  may  possess  and  express  this 
in  a  scale  of  points  is  at  best  but  a  stimulus  to  the  study  of 


Hereford  oalf,  winner  of  Sweepstakes,  International  Exposition,  Chicago, 
1900.    Owned  by  Mr.  Geo.  P.  Henry,  Goodenow,  111. 


Shorthorn  bull  calf,  SCOTTISH  CHAMPION,  at  7  months.  The  highest 
priced  calf  of  1898.  Bred  by  W.  S.  Marr,  Uppermill,  Scotland.  Sold  at  auction 
for  $1,650. 


Polled  Durham  cow,  owned  by  H.  Lee  Borden,  of  Tonti,  111.  The  term 
"double  standard"  is  applied  to  such  Polled  Durhams  as  are  eligible  for  reg- 
istration in  the  American  Shorthorn  Herd  Book  as  well  as  in  the  Polled 
Durham  Record. 


Photo  by  Reid. 

Hereford  herd  owned  by  Messrs.  Gudgell  &  Simpson,  Independence,  Mo. 
This  herd  won  first  prize  as  the  best  young  herd  at  the  Kansas  City  National 
Live  Stock  Show  in  1900. 


JUDGING   DAIRY    CATTLE  77 

them,  and  it  is  only  with  this  in  mind  that  the  various  scales 
of  points  are  submitted  here  in  this  work.  That  which  fol- 
lows is  used  at  the  London  and  Canadian  Dairy  Show  as  a 
basis  for  making  awards:  Twenty  points  for  constitution  and 
conformation,  one  point  for  each  pound  of  milk,  twenty 
points  for  each  pound  of  fat,  four  points  for  each  pound  of 
solids  not  fat,  one  point  for  each  ten  days  in  milk  after  the 
first  twenty  days  (limit  200  days);  ten  points  is  deducted 
from  the  total  score  for  each  per  cent  of  fat  below  three  per 
cent  fat  in  the  milk. 

While  the  judging  of  dairy  cattle  by  points  may  not  be 
completely  satisfactory,  it  is  a  quick  method  for  use  in  the 
show  ring  and  it  assists  in  the  study  of  the  many  traits  that 
are  common  to  dairy  cattle.  Its  value  does  not  lie  in  the 
degree  to  wl^ich  it  assists  in  distinguishing  the  good  cows 
from  the  bad  ones  but  chiefly  for  the  insight  which  it  gives 
into  the  nature  and  functions  of  the  dairy  animal,  and  it  is 
the  deeper  knowledge  of  them  that  leads  to  better  care,  more 
intelligent  feeding  and  more  successful  breeding,  which  all 
culminate  in  greater  production. 

128.  Dairy  Cow's  Function.     To  be  able  to  draw  correct 
inferences  from  the  points  of  the  dairy  cow,  it  is  necessary 
to  understand  her  function  and  how  she  performs  it.     The 
function  of  the  dairy  cow  is  to  make  milk,  so  that  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  a  complete  knowledge  of  how  she  does  this  and 
more  especially  the  operation  of  the  chief  organs  employed 
in  the  process.     After  studying  this  so  as  to  see  the  work 
performed  by  each  part,  it  is  then  realized  that  the  type  of 
the  dairy  cow  is  produced  simply  by  the  activity  of  these 
parts  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  clear 
conception  of  the  close  relation  of  function  or  work,  to  type. 

129.  Making  of  Milk.     To  understand  how  milk  is  made 
let  us  follow  the  course  of  the  food  after  entering  the  cow's 
mouth.     From  there  it  passes  into  the  gullet  and  then  to  the 
first  stomach  or  paunch.     After  remaining  there  for  a  time, 


78  JUDGING    CATTLE 

the  most  of  it  is  returned  to  the  mouth  and  remasticated; 
when  this  is  accomplished  the  food  passes  through  the  two 
other  stomachs  and  finally  lodges  in  the  fourth.  After 
undergoing  a  mixing  process  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  of 
the  stomach,  the  food  passes  into  the  small  intestines.  Up  to 
this  time  the  chief  action  of  the  various  parts  has  been  to  break 
up  the  food,  so  that  the  fluids  of  the  body  may  act  upon  it, 
and  make  the  digestible  and  nutritive  portion  into  a  solution. 
In  its  passage  thus  far  the  food  has  been  subjected  to  the 
action  of  the  saliva  of  the  mouth  and  the  gastric  juice  of  the 
stomach, together  with  the  bile  of  the  liver  and  pancreatic  j  uice 
which  attack  it  in  the  small  intestine.  The  result  of  this  action 
is  that  the  soluble  nitrogenous  material,  carbohydrates  and 
salts  are  now  in  a  condition  to  be  received  by  the  blood  and 
carried  to  the  parts  of  the  body  that  make  the  most  abund- 
ant use  of  it.  We  see  from  this  that  the  stomach  and  its  aids 
have  an  important  part  to  play  in  preparing  the  food,  so  that 
it  may  supply  the  cow  the  material  to  carry  on  her  specialty, 
which  is  the  making  of  milk. 

130.  Function  of  the  Blood.  The  food  now  being  in  a 
condition  to  be  utilized  by  the  animal  economy,  let  us  see 
how  it  passes  into  the  blood  and  finally  reaches  that  other 
great  manufacturing  center  of  the  body  of  the  dairy  cow, 
the  udder.  It  is  the  blood  that  is  the  medium  for  carrying 
the  nutritive  portions  of  the  food  to  the  organs  needing  them. 
The  mucous  membrane  or  inner  lining  of  the  small  intestines 
is  covered  with  a  large  number  of  small  glands  that  have  the 
appearance  of  the  pile  on  velvet.  These  villi  consist  of  cells 
and  numerous  small  branches  of  veins  called  capillaries,  and 
they  also  have  what  are  known  as  lacteals.  All  the  consti- 
tuents, excepting  the  fat,  pass  through  the  wall  of  the  small 
capillaries  and  these  connect  with  the  portal  vein,  which 
carries  the  blood  to  the  liver  and  thence  to  the  right  side  of 
the  heart.  The  emulsified  fat  of  the  food  reaches  the  same 
destination  by  a  slightly  different  course.  It  passes  into  the 


JUDGING  DAIRY   CATTLE  79 

lacteals  that  are  contained  in  the  villi  mentioned  and  these 
join  a  long  tube  that  runs  beneath  the  spine  and  finally 
reaches  the  thoracic  duct,  which  also  receives  all  the  fluid 
coming  from  the  other  lymphatics  in  the  cow.  The  thoracic 
duct  empties  its  contents  about  the  region  of  the  first  rib  into 
a  great  vein  (the  anterior  vena  cava)  which  opens  into  the 
right  side  of  the  heart,  so  all  the  digestible  constituents  of 
the  food  are  now  in  the  blood  and  have  reached  the  right 
side  of  the  heart.  From  here  the  blood  goes  to  the  lungs  to 
be  purified  by  the  air  that  is  breathed  in  and  then  it  again 
goes  back  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart  to  be  pumped  through 
the  arteries  to  the  various  portions  of  the  body.  Several 
branches  run  to  the  various  organs  of  the  body  but  that 
which  goes  to  the  mammary  gland  is  of  chief  interest  in 
the  function  of  making  milk.  The  aorta  runs  along  under 
the  spinal  column  and  finally  reaches  the  femoral  artery 
which  is  about  parallel  with  the  femur  or  thigh  bone.  This 
throws  off  a  branch  (prepubic)  which  again  branches  into 
another  (the  external  pubic)  and  this  again  after  it  passes 
through  the  inguinal  ring  divides  into  two  branches  (the 
anterior  or  subcutaneous  artery,  and  the  posterior  abdominal 
or  mammary  artery)  and  from  these  the  mammary  gland 
receives  its  supply,  as  they  branch  into  all  the  regions  of  the 
udder. 

Following  the  blood  still  further,  it  passes  through  the 
udder  and  appears  outside  of  it  in  what  are  known  as  the 
milk  veins.  They  run  along  the  belly,  pass  into  the  body, 
and  finally  direct  the  blood  to  the  heart  again.  In  respect 
to  the  function  and  relations  of  the  organs  up  to  this  point, 
we  can  understand  that  the  stomach  and  its  accessories  per- 
form the  greatest  amount  of  work  in  making  food  into  blood, 
while  the  lungs  purify  it,  and  the  heart  propels  it  to  those 
parts  that  are  in  most  need  of  it. 

131.  Function  of  the  Udder.  In  the  dairy  cow  the  udder 
is  an  important  organ,  for  it  directly  performs  the  work  of 


80  JUDGING    CATTLE 

making  milk,  which  is  the  dairy  cow's  specialty.  With  the 
exception  of  the  water,  the  udder  is  generally  considered  to 
produce  as  the  direct  product  of  its  own  action  all  the  constit- 
uents of  the  milk.  The  casein,  the  fat  and  the  milk  sugar 
are  elaborated  in  the  udder,  the  only  constituent  that  is 
thought  not  to  undergo  any  change  is  the  water  in  the  blood. 
However,  it  is  from  the  blood  that  the  milk  is  made,  for  the 
action  of  the  udder  is  to  so  change  all  the  constituents  that 
the  milk  distinctly  becomes  the  peculiar  product  of  the 
udder. 

To  better  understand  the  construction  of  the  udder  let  us 
follow  the  course  of  the  small  opening  which  exists  at  the 
end  of  the  teat.  This  opening  at  the  upper  part  of  the  teat 
swells  into  a  cistern  or  milk  reservoir,  where  the  milk 
accumulates  to  a  degree  between  the  time  of  milking.  The 
milk  is  prevented  from  passing  out  of  this  cistern  through 
che  teat  by  a  small  muscle  (sphincter)  which  holds  the  milk 
in  the  udder  until  relaxed  by  the  stimulation  of  milking. 
From  this  cistern  a  canal  extends  further  into  the  udder. 
This  branches  many  times  and  at  the  end  of  each  branch 
there  is  a  cluster  (a  lobe)  of  tissue  very  similar  to  a  bunch 
of  grapes.  What  is  known  as  the  lobe  is  similar  to  the 
bunch,  the  lobule  resembling  one  grape,  and  what  is  known 
as  the  alveoli  the  seeds  of  the  grape.  The  alveoli  are  lined 
with  small  cells  in  which  the  milk  is  made.  These  cells 
produce  within  themselves  the  fat  peculiar  to  milk  and  also 
secrete  the  water,  salts,  etc. ,  that  enter  into  the  composition 
of  milk.  The  milk  being  secreted  in  these  millions  of  small 
cells,  which  compose  the  udder,  passes  into  the  branches  that 
lead  to  them,  and  from  these  it  passes  into  the  main  branch 
and  finally  reaches  the  milk  cistern,  where  it  accumulates 
until  milking  begins.  The  four  quarters  which  make  up  the 
whole  udder  are  each  constructed  in  the  way  indicated  and 
they  act  somewhat  independently  of  each  other. 


JUDGING    DAIRY    CATTLE  81 

132.  Nervous  System.  Besides  the  organs  performing  the 
work  of  digestion  and  secretion,  there  is  another  feature  of 
the  physiology  of  the  dairy  cow,  which  is  of  equal  importance. 
Reference  is  made  to  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the 
numberless  nerves  connected  with  the  nervous  system.  These 
control  the  action  of  most  of  the  organs  of  the  body  and  have 
an  effective  influence  over  the  amount  of  work  that  they  may 
accomplish.  The  nervous  system  is  represented  by  the 
brain  and  the  spinal  cord  with  its  branches.  The  spinal 
cord  runs  through  the  vertebrae  from  the  head  to  the  tail, 
and  sends  out  from  each  vertebra  branches  that  connect  with 
the  various  organs  of  the  body.  The  feature  connected  with 
the  nervous  system  that  has  special  application  to  the  dairy 
cow  is  that  of  temperament.  More  study  has  been  given 
this  in  the  instance  of  men,  and  those  who  have  given  most 
attention  to  it  have  divided  their  temperament  into  four 
classes — nervous,  lymphatic,  bilious  and  sanguinary.  In  cat- 
tle the  two  divisions,  nervous  and  lymphatic  are  most  in 
evidence,  and  they  are  very  markedly  characteristic  of  two 
classes  of  cattle,  dairy  stock  and  beef  animals.  In  an  ani- 
mal of  nervous  temperament,  the  nervous  organization  is 
strong  and  well  developed.  Such  an  animal  is  able  to  stand 
labor  beyond  what  would  be  expected  of  it  from  its  physical 
appearance.  The  animal  of  lymphatic  temperament  is  slug- 
gish in  disposition  and  inclined  to  fatten  or  become  fleshy. 
It  should  be  stated  that  the  common  conception  of  nervous 
temperament  is  not  the  same  as  that  which  is  referred  to 
here.  Generally  when  reference  is  made  to  an  animal's  hav- 
ing a  nervous  temperament  is  commonly  supposed  to  mean 
that  it  is  irritable  and  excitable  which  actually  indicates  the 
lack  of  nervous  control.  The  term  as  properly  used  in  refer- 
ence to  dairy  cattle  means  an  animal  that  is  full  of  nerves, 
one  that  has  strong  nerves  which  gives  tone  to  the  various 
organs  of  the  body.  The  animal  of  nervous  temperament 
is  one  that  is  sensitive  and  active,  giving  all  regions  the 


82  JUDGING    CATTLE 

greatest  vitality  and  all  the  organs  the  greatest  productive 
powers. 

To  sum  up,  if  we  consider  a  cow  simply  as  a  machine  for 
making  milk,  we  find  that  the  food  «is  manufactured  into 
blood  by  the  stomach  and  its  accessories  and  the  blood  in  a 
general  sense  is  made  into  milk  by  the  udder  so  that  the  two 
main  manufacturing  centers  of  the  dairy  cow  are  the  stomach 
and  the  udder,  and  it  is  around  these  that  what  is  known  as 
the  dairy  type  has  evolved  its  peculiarities.  But  as  the 
dairy  cow  is  more  than  a  machine,  as  she  has  vitality  and 
recuperative  power,  we  find  that  the  nervous  system  as 
expressed  in  the  nervous  temperament  is  what  enables  her 
to  maintain  her  enormous  productive  powers  in  these 
centers 

133.  The  Dairy  Form.  It  will  be  understood  from  the 
previous  discussion  of  the  function  of  the  dairy  cow  that 
there  are  four  main  centers  of  activity  when  she  is  perform- 
ing her  function  ;  the  digestive  system,  the  milk  secreting 
system,  the  circulatory  system  and  the  nervous  system. 
And  it  is  because  of  extreme  activity  in  these  centers  that 
the  dairy  cow  inclines  towards  a  given  type.  She  tends  to 
become  wedge  shaped  and  lean  because  of  the  unusual 
activity  in  the  regions  mentioned.  Certain  portions  of  her 
organization  have  an  undue  amount  of  work  which  tends  to 
their  development  in  an  extreme  degree,  while  the  other 
portions  because  of  their  activity  and  lack  of  nourishment 
do  not  develop  to  the  fullest  degree  ;  this  results  in  the 
instance  of  unusual  performers  in  a  type  that  is  inclined  to 
be  narrow  in  front  and  wide  and  deep  behind.  While  it 
does  not  necessarily  follow  that  a  cow,  to  be  a  good  dairy 
animal,  must  be  of  this  type  yet  because  of  the  work  she 
does,  most  of  them  tend  towards  it.  The  relation  of  type 
to  performance  has  been  the  subject  of  experiments  by 
Professor  Haecker,  reported  in  Bulletin  67  of  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station.  When  a  cow  is  milking  freely 


Jersey  cow,  DOLLY'S  VALENTINE.    Yearly  test,  made  by  Kentucky  Exper- 
iment Station,  679.5  Ibs.  butter.    Owned  by  Kentucky  Experiment  Station. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  JERSEY  CATTL.E 

|N  THE  establishment  of  this  breed  on  the  island,  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 
the  work  was  conducted  very  systematically  to  produce  uniformity  of  type 
and  bovine  beauty.  In  establishing  the  ideal,  two  representative  animals  were 
chosen  for  excellence  and  the  scale  of  points  adopted  was  made  a  combination  of 
these.  The  early  breeders  adhered  very  closely  to  color,  markings  and  type  but 
the  modern  breeder  has  lessened  the  attention  towards  these  by  breeding  more 
strictly  for  utility  as  a  butter  producer.  The  foundation  stock  for  the  Jersey 
represented  chiefly  by  those  on  the  island  at  the  present  time  are  noted  specially 
for  the  deer  like  appearance  of  their  heads,  fine,  slim  necks,  light  shoulders,  deep 
though  narrow  fore  quarters,  large  bodies  with  abundant  capacity,  lean  hind  quar- 
ters and  more  particularly  for  the  beautiful  appearance  of  the  udder  in  its  fullness 
and  placing  of  the  teats.  Since  the  introduction  of  a  system  of  testing,  the  indica- 
tions which  give  power  of  production  have  overbalanced  to  some  degree  the  fine 
discriminations  which  existed  as  to  the  general  color  and  markings,  of  nose,  tongue 
and  switch.  The  modern  type  may  be  of  broken  color,  or  lack  in  the  fancy  points 
referred  to  but  it  has  the  ability  for  larger  butter  production  more  intensified,  as 
fche  frame  is  inclined  to  show  more  strength  and  the  general  form  more  ruggedness 
of  constitution.  While  the  type  should  show  the  angular  form  which  is  conducive 
to  the  highest  butter  production,  yet  those  features  which  contribute  to  beauty,  the 
head  and  neck,  should  not  be  wholly  without  the  graceful  lines  so  characte  istic  of 
the  breed.  See  scale  of  points,  page  97. 


Guernsey  cow,  FANTINE  2D  3720.     Record,  9,738  (Is.  of  milk  and  602  llts.  <>f 
butter.    Owned  by  Chas.  Solveson,  Washota,  Wisconsin.. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  GUERNSEY  CATTLE 

*I*HE  GUERNSEY  cattle  coming  from  the  island  of  that  name  have  not  had 
attached  to  them  any  peculiar  requirements  as  to  the  type  or  markings,  as 
these  have  been  allowed  to  evolve  themselves  as  the  breed  developed  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  the  island.  Being  carefully  pro- 
tected from  the  infusions  of  blood  from  foreign  sources  they  have  become  of  a  dis- 
tinct type  and  their  markings  and  color  have  necessarily  assumed  uniformity.  The 
greatest  production  of  butter  has  been  the  aim  and  the  evolution  of  the  breed  and 
this  has  evolved  the  type  of  large  capacity,  necessarily  strong  in  frame  without 
any  encouragement  being  given  to  the  finer  lines  of  beauty,  The  color  is  usually 
some  shade  of  fawn  with  white  markings,  but  this  is  considered  subordinate  to  the 
color  of  the  skin  which  should  be  of  a  rich  orange  tinge.  The  head  in  all  its  linea- 
ments should  show  refinement,  the  nostril  and  mouth  large,  the  face  slightly  dished 
and  clearly  chiseled,  the  eye  large  and  full  with  the  top  of  the  head  surmounted 
by  delicate  horns.  The  juncture  of  the  head  and  neek  should  be  trim  and  light 
and  the  latter  slim.  A  sharp  shoulder  should  run  into  a  deep  chest  and  the  latter 
should  swell  into  a  roomy  barrel.  The  back  should  be  sharp  and  straight  and  the 
hind  quarters  completely  free  from  fleshiness  with  a  thin  thigh.  The  udder  is  a 
leading  consideration  and  it  should  be  long  with  full,  circular  form  and  teats  large 
and  the  milk  veins  prominent,  branched  and  tortuous.  See  the  elaborate  official 
scale  of  points,  page  98. 


JUDGING   DAIRY   CATTLE  83 

if  she  possesses  good  dairy  qualities  there  is  likely  to  be 
a  lean  appearance  over  every  region  of  the  body  show- 
ing that  she  is  an  animal  of  nervous  organization  and 
further  that  she  utilizes  all  her  foods  for  the  making  of  milk 
and  not  for  the  filling  out  of  her  form. 

In  a  good  dairy  cow  there  is  a  feminine  look  that  is  very 
characteristic.  There  is  no  thickening  of  the  neck,  or  a 
crest  on  the  neck,  or  any  heaviness  of  the  fore  quarters  indi- 
cating the  slightest  masculinity,  but  all  of  these  parts  are 
light,  clean  cut  and  in  every  way  indicative  of  feminine 
character.  The  size  of  the  dairy  cow  comes  into  the  discus- 
sion of  type.  This  has  something  to  do  with  her  perform- 
ance, but  there  is  no  distinct  advantage  in  having  a  cow  very 
large  if  there  is  not  with  it  characteristics  which  indicate 
enlarged  dairy  qualities. 

134.  Skin  — Soft,  Fine.     The  skin  should  be  soft  and 
comparatively  thin.     It  is  a  point  of  much  value  to  discrim- 
inate against  a  thin,  papery  skin,  as  such  is  usually  associ- 
ated with  the  weakness  of  constitution.     The  skin  should  be 
unctuous,  or  oily  to  the  touch,  giving  the  impression  that 
butter  might  be  squeezed  out  of  it.     When  the  secretions  of 
the  skin  are  healthy  it  may  be  expected  that  the  secretions 
in  the  rest  of  the  body  are  going  on  vigorously.     The  skin 
lining  the  ear  should  be  a  golden  color  and  so  should  that  in 
the  region  of  the  udder,  inside  the  thighs,  around  the  eyes, 
at  the  root  of  the  tail  and  below  any  spots  of  white  hair. 

135.  Hair  —  Silky,  Fine.     The  hair  covering  all  the  body 
should  be  short,  soft  and  silky.     The  udder  especially  should 
be  covered  with  hair  of  this  character,  and  not  with  long, 
coarse  hair,  as  is  often  observed  on  poorly  milking  animals. 
Coarse,   harsh   hair   is   generally  an  indication  of  lack  of 
refinement  and  an  evidence  of  unthriftiness. 

136.  Bone  —  Fine  Texture.     The  dairy  cow  in  her  daily 
life  needs  but  sufficient  bone  to  maintain  her  form.     As  a 
rule  the  milking  cows  are  loose  in  form  but  possessed  of  fine 


84  JUDGING    CATTLE 

quality.     There  should  not  be  any  appearance  of  weakness 
due  to  fineness,  yet  the  form  should  not  be  coarse  and  heavy. 

137.  Head  —  Feminine,    Lean,    Long.     A   very  essential 
quality  is  for  the  head  to  have  a  feminine  appearance.     The 
ideal  head  of  a  cow  is  devoid  of  the  heaviness  and  coarse- 
ness characteristic  of  the  bull.     Just   as  milk  giving  is  a 
peculiar  trait  of  the  cow  so  is  fineness  in  the  head.     The 
face  should  be  long  and  especially  lean  with  the  features  very 
distinct.     The  eye  should  be  full,  mild  and  bright,  and  more 
or  less  active.     A  kindly  disposition  is  reflected  by  a  mild 
eye,  while  one  that  is  bright  is  indicative  of  vigorous  circu- 
lation and  good  health.     Large,  dilated  nostrils  permitting 
easy  entrance  of  air  to  the  lungs,  with  prominent  windpipe, 
are  usually  associated  with  depth  of  chest  and  lung  capacity. 
In  size  the  ear  should  be  medium,  possessed  of  fine  quality, 
and  a  rich  orange  color  inside.     The  strong  horn  of  the  bull 
is  not  desirable,  but  rather  one  that  is  small  and  fine  in 
quality.     The  poll  should  be  prominent,  with  the  forehead 
broad  and  full,  showing  strong  development  of  brain. 

138.  Neck  —  Thin.     A  slim,  fine  neck  carrying  the  head 
gracefully  is  a  characteristic  that  adds  much  to  the  appear- 
ance of  a  dairy  cow.     The  fullness  and  heaviness  here  which 
characterizes  the  beef  animal  should  be  completely  absent. 
The  neck  must  be  thin  and  join  an  equally  thin  and  bare 
shoulder,  with  the  withers  sharp  but  yet  quite  open.     The 
performing  powers  of  the  dairy  cow  depend  greatly  on  the 
depth   and  volume  of  the  barrel.     It  has  been  noted  the 
important  part  that  the  heart,  lungs  and  stomach  perform  in 
the  work  of  a  dairy  cow,  so  that  the  necessity  of  having  a 
barrel  that  will  afford  ample  room  for  the  work  of  these  will 
be  readily  apparent.     The  ribs  should  be  long  to  supply 
storage  capacity  for  food.     The  backbone  should  be  promi- 
.*ent  and  strong,  for  through  it  ana  under  it  run  two  of  the 
'argest  channels,  representing  two  of  the  most  vital  systems 
of  the  body,  the  nervous  and  the  circulatory. 


JUDGING   DAIRY    CATTLE  85 

139.  Hind  Quarter  —  Lean,   Elevated.     As  a  whole,  the 
hind  quarter  in  a  deep  milking  cow  is  strikingly  free  from 
fleshiness,  and  there  is  usually  a  slight  raise  in  the  quarter 
from  the  loin  to  the  attachment  of  the  tail.     Some  think  this 
conformation  indicates  vigor,  but  a  more  reasonable  view  of 
the   merit  of  the  point  asserts  that  it  is  to  some  extent 
unfavorable  for  the  premature  birth  of  calves. 

140.  Hips  —  Sharp,  Wide  Apart.     The  hip  bones  should 
be  prominent,  sharp  and  wide  apart,  giving  plenty  of  room 
to  the  generative  organs.     From  the  point  of  the  hip  to  the 
end  of  the  tail  there  should  be  a  marked  hollow  or  shrink- 
age, due  to  the  absence  of  the  flesh,  a  condition  character- 
istic of  heavy  performers  when  in  full  milk. 

141.  Thigh — Thin,  In-curving.     The  thigh,  for  the  same 
reason  should  be  thin  and  retreating  and  possessed  of  length. 
A  thin  thigh,  decidedly  in-curving  is  a  noteworthy  feature. 
Attention  has  been  drawn  to  the  use  of  the  tail  as  a  plumb 
line  to  determine  the  degree  to  which  the  thigh  curves. 

142.  Escutcheon. —  High,  Wide,  Spreading.     Viewing  the 
thighs  and  the  region  of  the  cow  above  the  udder,  it  will  be 
observed  that  on  this  part  the  hair  runs  in  the  opposite 
direction  from  that  to  which  it  inclines  on  the  other  parts  of 
the  body.    Where  it  does  this,  it  is  known  as  the  escutcheon, 
to  which  attention  was  first  directed  by  Guenon.     It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  reason  of  this  hair  growing  in  the  direction 
mentioned  is  due  to  the  artery  which  passes  this  part.     The 
artery  supplying  the  udder  with  blood  also  nourishes  the 
skin  on  which  the  escutcheon  grows.     Many  have  the  idea 
that  Guenon   considered   this  the  only  point  of  value  in 
determining  the  worth  of  a  cow.     The  fact  is  that  he  con- 
sidered it  only  one  of  ten  to  be  included  in  the  merits  of  a 
first-class  dairy  cow.     There  is  some  reason  for  considering 
the  escutcheon  as  it  is  undoubtedly  to  a  degree  an  index  of 
the  quantity  of  blood  received  by  the  udder,  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  milk  veins  are  of  value  as  they  indicate  the 


86  JUDGING    CATTLE 

quality  of  blood  that  leaves  the  udder.  In  1878  a  commis- 
sion was  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  to 
inquire  into  the  reliability  of  this  point,  and  they  reported 
in  its  favor.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into  the  details  of  the 
various  classes  of  escutcheons  as  Guenon  enumerates  eight 
classes  and  eight  orders  or,  in  other  words,  eight  different 
shapes  and  eight  different  sizes.  He  claimed  that  the  shape 
was  indicative  of  the  quantity  and  the  size  was  an  index  of 
the  duration  of  the  milk  flow.  The  broader  it  extends  over 
the  thigh  and  the  greater  the  length  of  it  the  better  the 
escutcheon  is  considered  to  be.  Guenon  believed  that  he 
thigh  escutcheon  indicated  the  quantity  of  milk  the  cow 
gave,  while  the  upper  portion  or  vertical  escutcheon  the  length 
of  time  she  would  milk,  and  with  these  he  considered  the 
feel  of  the  skin,  the  character  of  the  hair,  and  the  color  of 
the  skin  as  indicative  of  the  quality  of  the  milk.  With 
these  features  he  also  associated  ' '  the  thigh  ovals ' '  on  the 
udder  just  above  the  hind  teats,  for  in  his  view  an  escutcheon 
was  not  considered  of  a  high  order  without  them. 

143.  Udder — Long,    Plastic.      When  empty    the   udder 
should  nearly  lose  its  form  and  appear  to  consist  of  folds  of 
soft,  pliable  and  elastic  skin.     The  hind  quarter  should  be 
full  behind  and  attached  high,  while  the  fore  quarter  should 
extend  far  forward.     Length  in  the  udder  is  important,  as 
it  gives  a  long  line  of  absorption.     It  should  be  fully  thirty 
inches  long  from  the  attachment  at  the  back  to  where  it 
joins  the  belly.     It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  udder  not 
only  secretes  milk  from  the  blood  and  hence  is  an  important 
organ,  but  it  is  also  a  receptacle  for  holding  the  milk.     In 
Bulletin  62  issued  by  Purdue  University,  Professor  Plumb 
presents  some  instructive  studies  of  this  important  organ. 

144.  Teats  —  Evenly  Placed.     These  should  be  just  large 
enough  to  fill  the  hand  and  yield  milk  easily  but  never  leak. 
They  should  be  evenly  placed,  standing  at  least  six  inches 
apart  in  all  directions  when  the  udder  is  full. 


JUDGING   DAIRY   CATTLE  87 

145.  Milk  Veins  —  Large,  Branching.  The  milk  veins  are 
considered  important  as  they  indicate  the  amount  of  blood 
that  has  passed  through  the  udder.  In  a  cow  that  has 
recently  dropped  her  calf  they  should  be  very  prominent  and 
full  and  branched.  The  milk  wells  through  which  the  veins 
pass  into  the  body  of  the  cow  are  indicative  of  the  size  of 
the  milk  veins  and  consequently  they  should  receive  consid- 
eration, especially  when  the  cow  is  dry,  for  at  that  time  the 
milk  veins  themselves  are  not  in  evidence. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE  —  COW.  &  O 

PL, 
GENERAL  APPEARANCE : 

Form,  inclined  to  be  wedge  shaped 6 

Quality,  hair  fine,   soft ;    skin,   mellow,   loose,  medium 
thickness;  secretion  yellow;  bone  clean,  fine. 6 

Temperament,  nervous,   indicated    by  lean  appearance 

when  in  milk , 6 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

-Muzzle,  clean  cut ;  mouth  large  ;  nostrils  large 

Eyes,  large,  bright,  full,  mild 

Face,  lean,  long,  quiet  expression 

Forehead,  broad 

Ears,  medium  size,  yellow  inside,  fine  texture 

Horns,  fine  texture,  waxy 

Neck,  fine,  medium  length,  throat  clean,  light  dewlap 

FORE  QUARTERS : 

Withers,  lean,  thin i 

Shoulders,  light,  oblique 2 

Legs,  straight,  short ;  shank  fine 2 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  low,  girth  large  with  full  fore  flank 10 

Barrel,  ribs  broad,  long,  wide  apart ;  large  stomach 10 

Back,  lean,  straight,  open  jointed 2 

Loin,  broad 2 

Navel,  large 2 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  far  apart,  level .- 2 

Rump,  long,  wide 2 

Pin  Bones  or  Thurls,  high,  wide  apart i  I 

Tail,  long,  slim  ;  fine  hair  in  switch i 

Thighs,  thin,  long 4 

Escutcheon,  spreading  over  thighs,  extending  high  and 

wide  ;  large  thigh  ovals 2 

Udder,  long,  attached  high  and  full  behind,  extending  far 
in  front  and  full,  flexible ;  quarters  even  and  free  from 

fleshiness 20 


88  JUDGING    CATTLE 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE  —  COW. 

Continued. 

P^ 

Teats,  large,  evenly  placed , 5 

Mammary  Veins,  large,  long,  tortuous,  branched  with 

double  extension  ;  large  and  numerous  milk  wells 5 

Legs,  straight ;  shank  fine 2 

Total ."loo 

IV.      JUDGING   DAIRY   BULLS 

146.  Judging  Dairy  Bulls.      In  judging  dairy  bulls  many 
points  may  be  noted  that  they  have  in  common  with  dairy 
cows,  especially  features  of  type,  but  it  is  a  much  more  dif- 
ficult task  to  judge  between  those  of  this  sex  than  it  is  to 
discriminate  between  developed  cows. 

147.  Purity  of  Breeding.      It  seems  necessary  to  say  that 
the  first  requirement  in  the  dairy  bull,  as  in  the  instance  of 
all  other  stock  sires,  is  purity  of  breeding.     The  sire  should 
meet  all  the  requirements  demanded  of  a  pure-bred  animal 
for  registration.     In  addition  the  dairy  sire  should   have 
the   characteristics   which   are   called   for   by  the   scale  of 
points  for  the  breed  represented. 

148.  Uniformity   of   Breeding.      To  secure  the  greatest 
prepotency  in   a   sire,   the  breeding   for   some  generations 
back  must  show  a  uniformity  in  the  type  and  characteristics 
of  the  ancestry.     When  the  animals  mentioned  in  a  pedi- 
gree lack  uniformity,  or  have  been  dissimilar  in  type  and 
characteristics,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  progeny  will  show 
that  uniformity  which  every  breeder  desires  to  see  in  the 
herd. 

149.  Pedigree  Based  on  Performance.     The  most  valu- 
able characteristic  relating  to  the  pedigree  of  a  dairy  bull 
is  the  number  and  the  merit  of  the  records  that  have  been 
made  by  the  cows  that  are  named  in  it.     This  feature  is  not 
usually  considered  in  the  show  ring,  though  it  should  be, 
as  it  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  worth  of  a  dairy  sire. 
The  most  important  feature  of  the  pedigree  of  a  dairy  sire  15 
the  degree  to  which  his  dam  was  a  good  dairy  cow,  and  in  k 


TUDOING   DAIRY    CATTLE  89 

lessening  degree  the  records  of  those  that  preceded  her. 
Next  in  importance  to  this  is  the  number  and  the  merit  of 
the  performances  of  the  cows  that  are  mentioned  in  the 
wires'  line.  Not  only  should  the  dams  in  the  pedigrees 
have  good  records  as  performers,  but  the  males  should  also 
be  getters  of  performers.  A  bull  that  has  breeding  of  high 
order  based  on  performance,  is  as  certain  as  things  can  be 
to  sire  superior  stock,  provided  he  is  satisfactory  as  an  in- 
dividual. 

150.  Qualities  Associated  with  Individuality.      Impressive 
power  or  prepotency  and  constitution  are  indicated  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  by  the  individual.     The  first  mentioned  may  be 
estimated  with  some  certainty  by  the  masculine  appearance 
of  the  bull  in  the  head,  horn,  and  crest;  while  the  consti- 
tution is  reflected  by  the  depth  of  chest,  the  size  of  the  na- 
vel and  the  general  appearance  of  the  hair,  hide,  and  eye, 
as  these  are  closely  associated  with  thrift  and  vigor.     The 
type  in  other  respects  should  be  that  outlined  for  the  dairy 
cow.     A  very  common  defect  in   the  form  of  the  dairy  bull 
is  roundness  of  the  hips  and  undue  fullness  of  the  thighs, 
traceable  to  heaviness  of  flesh  in  these  regions. 

The  hip  bones  and  the  hocks  should  be  prominent  and 
between  these  points  there  should  be  a  marked  falling  away 
due  to  the  absence  of  any  tendency  towards  fatness  in  this 
region.  The  undeveloped  teats  should  be  large  and  well 
placed  and  the  navel  should  be  prominent.  The  skin, 
especially  where  it  gathers  in  loose  folds  between  the  thighs 
and  at  other  points,  should  be  soft,  pliable  and  rich  in  color. 
All  points  should  show  much  more  openness  and  relaxation 
than  is  customary  in  beef  animals,  for  this  characteristic 
appears  to  be  prevalent  among  deep  milking  types. 

151.  Judging  Calves.     In  the  selection  of  the  best  calves 
the  merit  of  the  dam  as  a  dairy  cow  is  a  valuable  guide  but 
it  is  not  a  point  that  is  usually  employed  in   show  yard 
judging.     In  reference  to  the  form  of  heifer  calves  the  type 


90  JUDGING   CATTLE 

of  the  typical  dairy  cow  in  miniature  is  the  most  desirable. 
The  long  face,  the  thin  neck,  light  shoulder,  sharp  withers, 
deep  chest,  large  capacious  body,  wide,  long  and  thin  rump, 
thin  thighs,  mellow  hide  of  red  color  and  soft  hair  should  al] 
be  in  evidence.  The  folds  of  skin  in  the  udder  regions  should 
be  loose  and  pliable.  The  teats  should  not  be  bunched 
together  but  wide  apart  and  evenly  placed.  It  is  desirable 
to  have  the  navel  of  such  size  that  it  may  be  easily  noticed, 
and  the  form  in  every  part  should  have  the  open  and  relaxed 
condition  referred  to  in  discussing  developed  cows.  The 
bull  calf  differs  in  no  marked  degree  from  the  heifer  calf 
until  it  approaches  the  age  of  one  year  when  the  sex  char- 
acteristics have  developed  to  a  noticeable  extent. 

V.      OFFICIAL  STANDARDS    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOR   CATTLE. 

ABERDEEN  ANGUS  CATTLE.  A 

"c 

SCALE   OF   POINTS   ADOPTED    BY   AMERICAN  g 

ABERDEEN  ANGUS  ASSOCIATION— BULL.  (J 

Color  —  Black.  White  is  objectionable,  except  on  the  underline 
behind  the  navel,  and  there  only  to  a  moderate  extent ;  a 
white  cod  is  most  undesirable 3 

Head  —  Forehead  broad  ;  face  slightly  prominent,  and  tapering 
toward  the  nose  ;  muzzle  fine  ;  nostrils  wide  and  open  ;  dis- 
tance from  eyes  to  nostrils  of  moderate  length  ;  eyes  mild, 
full  and  expressive,  indicative  of  good  disposition ;  ears  of 
good  medium  size ;  well  set  and  well  covered  with  hair ; 
poll  well  defined,  and  without  any  appearance  of  horns  or 
scurs  ;  jaws  clean 10 

Throat  — Clean,  without  any  development  of  loose  flesh  under- 
neath    3 

Neck  —  Of  medium  length,  muscular,  with  moderate  crest 
(which  increases  with  age),  spreading  out  to  meet  the 
shoulders,  with  futl  neck  vein . . . . .  3 

Shoulders  —  Moderately  oblique,  well  covered  on  the  blades 
and  top  ;  with  vertebra  or  backbone  slightly  above  the  scapula 
or  shoulder  blades,  which  should  be  moderately  broad 6 

Chest  —  Wide  and  deep  ;  also  round  and  full  just  back  of  elbows    10 

Brisket  — Deep  and  moderately  projecting:  from  between  the 
legs,  and  proportionately  covered  with  flesh  and  fat 4 

Ribs  — Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  arched  and  deep,  neatly 
joined  to  the  crops  and  loins 8 

Back  —  Broad  and  straight  from  crops  to  hooks  ;  loins  strong ; 
hook  bones  moderate  in  width,  not  prominent  and  well 
covered  ;  rumps  long,  full,  level  and  rounded  neatly  into 
hind  quarters 10 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR    CATTLE  9J 


ABERDEEN  ANGUS  CATTLE.  -g 

Bull —  Continued.  g 

Hind  Quarters  —  Deep  and  full ;  thighs  thick  and  muscular,  and 
in  proportion  to  hind  quarters ;  twist  filled  out  well  in  its 
''seam  "  so  as  to  form  an  even  wide  plane  between  thighs  . .  8 

Tail  —  Fine,  coming  neatly  out  of  the  body  on  a  line  with  the 
back  and  hanging  at  right  angles  to  it 3 

Underline  —  Straight,  as  nearly  as  possible  ;  flank,  deep  and  full      4 

Legs  —  Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed,  hind  legs  slightly 
inclined  forward  below  the  hocks  ;  forearm  muscular ;  bones 
fine  and  clean 4 

Flesh  —  Even  and  without  patchiness. 4 

Skin  —  Of  moderate  thickness  and  mellow  touch,  abundantly 
covered  with  thick  soft  hair.  (Much  of  the  thriftiness,  feeding 
properties,  and  value  of  the  animal,  depend  upon  this  qual- 
ity which  is  of  great  weight  in  the  grazier's  and  butcher's 
judgment,  A  good  "touch"  will  compensate  for  some 
deficiencies  of  form.  Nothing  can  compensate  for  a  skin 
hard  and  stiff.  In  raising  the  skin  from  the  body  it  should 
have  a  substantial,  soft,  flexible  feeling,  and  when  beneath 
the  outspread  hand  it  should  move  easily  as  though  resting 
on  a  soft  cellular  substance,  which  however  becomes  firmer 
as  the  animal  ripens.  A  thin  papery  skin  is  objectionable, 
especially  in  a  cold  climate) 10 

General  Appearance  —  Elegant,  well-bred  and  masculine.  The 
walk  square,  the  step  quick,  and  the  head  up 10 

Total 100 

When  bulls  are  exhibited  with  their  progeny  in  a  separate  class, 
add  25  counts  for  progeny. 


I 

SCALE   OF   POINTS   ADOPTED    BY   AMERICAN 

ABERDEEN   ANGUS  ASSOCIATION — COW.  O 

Color  —  Black.  White  is  objectionable,  except  on  the  underline 
behind  the  navel  and  there  only  to  a  moderate  extent 2 

Head  —  Forehead  moderately  broad  and  slightly  indented;  taper- 
ing toward  the  nose  ;  muzzle  fine  ;  nostrils  wide  and  open  ; 
distance  from  eyes  to  nostrils  of  moderate  length  ;  eyes  full, 
bright  and  expressive,  indicative  of  good  disposition  ;  ears 
large,  slightly  rising  upward,  and  well  furnished  with  hair ; 
poll  well  defined,  and  without  any  appearance  of  horns  or 
scurs  ;  jaws  clean 10 

Throat  —  Clean,  without  any  development  of  loose  flesh  under- 
neath  , 3 

Neck  —  Of  medium  length,  spreading  out  to  meet  the  shoulders, 

with  full  neck  vein 3 

Shoulders  —  Moderately  oblique,  well  covered  on  the  blades  and 
top ,  with  vertebra  or  backbone  slightly  above  the  scapula  or 
shoulder  blades,  which  should  be  moderately  broad 6 

Chest  —  Wide  and  deep  ;  round  and  full  just  back  of  elbows. . .     10 

Brisket  — Deep  and  moderately  projecting  from  between  the 
legs,  and  proportionately  covered  with  flesh  and  fat 4 


92  JUDGING   CATTLE 

ABERDEEN   ANGUS   CATTLE. 

Cow —  Continued. 

o 
U 

Ribs  —  Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  arched  and  deep,  neatly 
joined  to  the  crops  and  loins 8 

Back  —  Broad  and  straight  from  crops  to  hooks  ;  loins  strong ; 
hook  bones  moderate  in  width,  not  prominent,  and  well  cov- 
ered ;  rumps  long,  full,  level  and  rounded  neatly  into  hind 
quarters 10 

Hind  Quarters  —  Deep  and  full;  thighs  thick  and  muscular,  and 
in  proportion  to  hind  quarters ;  twist  filled  out  well  in  its 
"  seam  "  so  as  to  form  an  even  wide  plain  between  thighs. . .  8 

Tail  —  Fine,  coming  neatly  out  of  the  body  on  a  line  with  the 
back,  and  hanging  at  right  angles  to  it. 3 

Udder  —  Not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the  body 
and  well  up  behind  ;  teats  squarely  placed,  well  apart  and  of 
good  size 8 

Underline  —  Straight,  as  nearly  as  possible,  flank  deep  and  full.       4 

Legs  —  Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed  ;  hind  legs  slightly 
inclined  forward  belowthe  hocks;  fore  arm  muscular;  bones 
-fine  and  clean 3 

Flesh  —  Even  and  without  patchiness 3 

Skin  —  Of  moderate  thickness  and  mellow  touch,  abundantly 
covered  with  thick,  soft  hair.  (Much  of  the  thriftiness,  feed- 
ing properties  and  value  of  the  animal  depend  upon  this 
quality,  which  is  of  great  weight  in  the  grazier's  and  butch- 
er's judgment.  A  good  "  touch  "  will  compensate  for  some 
deficiencies  of  form.  ^  Nothing  can  compensate  for  a  skin 
hard  and  stiff.  In  raising  the  skin  from  the  body  it  should 
have  a  substantial,  soft,  flexible  feeling,  and  when  beneath 
the  outspread  hand  it  should  move  easily,  as  though  resting 
on  a  soft,  cellular  substance,  which,  however,  becomes 
firmer  as  the  animal  ripens.  A  thin,  papery  skin  is  objec- 
tionable, especially  in  a  cold  climate.) 10 

General  Appearance — Elegant,  well  bred  and  feminine.    The 

walk  square,  the  step  quick,  and  the  head  up 5 

Total 100 

In  judging  heifers  omit  No.  12,  and  add  3  counts  to  "Flesh, "and 
5  counts  to  No.  17,  in  the  order  named  above. 


DEVON  CATTLE. 


STANDARD    OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR  DEVON   BULL — ADOPTED  BY   DEVON 
CATTLE   BREEDERS   SOCIETY,  ENGLAND,   1896. 

Registered  pedigree. 

Head  masculine,  forehead  broad,  tapering  towards  the  nose,  which 
should  be  flesh-colored;  nostrils  high  and  open,  muzzle  broad;  eyes 
full  and  placid;  ears  medium  size  and  thickness,  fringed  with  hair; 
horns  growing  at  right  angles  from  the  head  or  slightly  elevated 
stout  and  waxy  at  the  base,  tipped  with  a  darker  shade. 

Cheek  full  and  broad  at  the  root  of  the  tongue.    Throat  clean. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  CATTLE      93 

Neck  of  medium  length  and  muscular,  growing  from  the  head  to 
the  shoulders  and  spreading  out  to  meet  them. 

Withers  fine,  shoulders  flat,  sloping  and  well  covered. 

Chest  deep,  broad  and  somewhat  circular  in  character. 

Ribs  well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep  and  fully 
developed. 

Back  straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of  tail, 
loins  broad  and  full,  hips  of  medium  width  and  on  a  level  with  the 
back. 

Rumps  moderately  long,  thick  and  square. 

Hind  quarters  deep,  thick  and  square. 

Tail,  thick  at  the  root,  and  tapering  with  a  brush  of  strong  hair, 
reaching  to  the  hocks  and  hanging  at  right  angles  with  the  back. 

The  underline  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  top. 

Arms  and  thighs  muscular. 

Legs  straight  and  squarely  placed  when  viewed  from  behind,  not 
to  cross  or  sweep  when  walking. 

Skin  moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an  abundant  coat 
of  rich  mossy  hair  of  a  red  color;  a  little  white  in  front  of  the  purse 
is  admissible;  but  it  should  not  extend  beyond  the  navel  forward,  on 
the  outside  of  the  flanks,  or  any  other  part  of  the  limbs  or  body. 


STANDARD   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR   DEVON   COW — ADOPTED   BY  DEVON 
CATTLE   BREEDERS   SOCIETY,  ENGLAND,   1896. 

Registered  pedigree. 

Head,  moderately  long,  with  a  broad  indented  forehead,  tapering 
considerably  towards  the  nostrils;  the  nose  of  a  creamy  white,  the 
nostrils  high  and  open,  the  jaws  clean,  the  eye  bright,  lively  and 
prominent;  throat  clean,  ears  thin,  the  expression  being  gentle  and 
intelligent;  horns  matching,  long,  spreading  and  gracefully  turned  up 
of  a  waxy  color  tipped  with  a  darker  shade. 

Neck  of  medium  length,  growing  from  the  head  to  the  shoulders, 
and  spreading  out  to  meet  them. 

Withers  fine,  shoulders  flat,  sloping  and  well  covered. 

Ribs  well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep  and 
fully  developed. 

f  Back  straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of  the 
tail,  loins  broad  and  full,  hips  of  medium  width  and  on  a  level  with 
the  back. 

Rumps  moderately  long  and  level. 

Hind  quarters,  deep,  thick  and  square. 

Udder  not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the  belly  and 
well  up  behind;  teats  moderately  large  and  squarely  placed. 

Tail  thick  at  the  root  and  tapering,  with  a  brush  of  strong  hair 
reaching  the  hocks  and  hanging  at  right  angles  with  the  back. 

The  underline  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  top. 

Legs  straight,  squarely  placed,  when  viewed  from  behind,  not  to 
cross  or  sweep  when  walking. 

Skin  moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an  abundant  coat 
of  rich  mossy  hair  of  a  red  color;  white  about  the  udder  is  admissible, 
but  it  should  not  extend  beyond  the  navel  forward,  on  the  outside  ot 
flanks  or  any  other  part  of  the  limbs  or  body. 


94  JUDGING  CATTLE 

HOLSTElNxFRESIAN  CATTLE.  ^ 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  PUBLISHED  IN  ADVANCED 

REGISTRY,  VOL.  II,  1889— BULL.  g 

Head  —  Showing  full  vigor,  elegant  in  contour 2 

Forehead  —  Broad  between  the  eves,  dishing ^ 

Face  —  Contour  graceful,  especially  under  the  eyes,  medium  in 

length,  broad  muzzle ,,.... 2 

Ear  —  Of  medium  size,  fine,  covered  with  soft  hair i 

Eyes  —  Moderately  large,  full  and  bright 2 

Horns  —  Medium  in  size,  fine  in  texture,  short,  oval,  inclining 

forward 2 

Neck  —  Neatly  joined  to  head  and  shoulders,  nearly  free  from 

dewlap,  good  length,  proud  in  bearing 5 

Shoulders  —  Of  medium  height,  well  rounded  and  even  over  top  4 

Chest  —  Low,  deep  and  full 8 

Crops  —  Full  and  level  with  shoulders. 4 

Chine  —  Straight,  broadly  developed  and  open 3 

Barrel  —  Well  rounded  and  large  abdomen 6 

Loins  and  Hip—  Broad,  full,  long  and  level 5 

Rump  —  High,  long,  broad  and  level 5 

Thurl  —  High,  with  great  width 4 

Quarters  —  Long,  straight  behind  and  full  at  sides 5 

Flanks  —  Deep  and  full 2 

Legs  —  Short,  clean,  tapering,  with  strong  arm,  with  position 
firm,  wide  apart;   feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and 

deep 6 

Tail  —  Reaching  to  hock  or  below,  large  at  setting,  tapering  to  a 

full  switch 2 

Hair  and  Handling  —  Fine,  soft  and  mellow,  skin  of  moderate 

thickness,  secretions  oily  and  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color.  10 
Mammary  Veins  —  Long,  large,  branched,  with  extensions  enter- 
ing large  orifices 10 

Rudimentary  Teats  —  Not  less  than  four,  large,  well  spread 2 

Escutcheon  —  Large  and  fine  development 8 

Total , ioo 

A  bull  that  has  from  three  to  five  of  his  progeny  in  Advanced 
Register  shall  be  credited  with  five  points,  in  excess  of  what  he  may 
scale  in  structure. 

A  bull  that  has  five  or  more  of  his  progeny  in  Advanced  Register 
shall  be  credited  with  ten  points,  in  excess  of  what  he  may  scale  in 
structure. 

No  bull  shall  be  received  to  Advanced  Registry  who  does  not 
scale  80  points. 

No  bull  shall  be  received  to  Advanced  Registry  that  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  inspectors  will  not  reach  a  minimum  weight  of  1,800  in 
good  flesh  at  full  age. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  CATTLE  95 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  PUBLISHED  IN  ADVANCED 
REGISTRY,  VOL.  1 1 ,  1889 — COW. 

CJ 
Head  —  Decidedly  feminine  in  appearance,  comparatively  long 

from  eyes  to  base  of  horns,  fine  in  contour 2 

Forehead  —  Broad  between  the  eyes,  dishing 2 

Face  —  Contour  fine,  especially  under  the  eyes,  showing  facial 

veins,  length  medium,  broad  muzzle 2 

Ears  —  Of  medium  size,  fine,  covered  with  soft  hair i 

Eyes  —  Moderately  full,  large  and  mild 2 

Horns  —  Set  moderately  narrow  at  base,  fine,  oval,  well  bent, 

inclining  forward 2 

Neck  —  Fine,  nearly  free  from  dewlap,  neatly  joined  to  head  and 
shoulders,  topline  slightly  curving,  of  good  length,  moder- 
ately thin,  elegant  in  bearing 4 

Shoulders  — Fine  and  even  over  top,  lower  than  hips  and  moder- 
ately thick,  deep  and  broad 3 

Chest  —  Low,  deep  and  broad 6 

Crops  —  Full  and  level  with  shoulders 2 

Chine  —  Straight,  broadly  developed  and  open 3 

Barrel  —  Well  rounded  with  large  abdomen 5 

Loin  and  Hip  —  Broad,  full,  long  and  level 5 

Rump  —  High,  broad  and  level,  with  roomy  pelvis 4 

Thurl  —  High,  with  great  width 4 

Quarters  —  Long,  straight  behind,  roomy  in  the  twist,  wide  and 

full  at  sides 4 

Flanks  —  Fairly  deep  and  full 2 

Legs  —  Short,  clean,  tapering,  with  strong  arm,  in  position  firm, 

wide  apart;  feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep 5 

Tail  —  Reaching  to  hocks  or  below,  large  at  setting,  tapering 

finely  to  a  full  switch 2 

Hair  and  Handling  —  Fine,  soft  and  mellow,  skin  of  moderate 

thickness,  secretions  oily  and  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color.  10 
Mammary  Veins  —  Large,  long,  crooked,  branched  with  exten- 
sion entering  large  orifices 10 

Udder  —  Capacious,  flexible,  well  developed,  both  in  front  and 

rear  ;  teats  well  formed,  wide  apart  and  of  convenient  size. .  12 

Escutcheon 8 

Total. loo 

A  cow  that  has  made  milk  or  butter  record  in  excess  of  the  mini- 
mum requirement  applicable  to  her  case  (see  Rule  6)  shall  be  cred- 
ited one  point  for  each  and  every  eight  per  cent  that  such  record 
exceeds  such  requirement. 

No  cow  shall  be  receiver1  to  Advanced  Registry  that  does  not 
scale  75  points  (credits  from  railk  records  being  allowed  as  provided 
above). 

No  cow  shall  be  receive^  to  Advanced  Registry  that  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  inspector  will  r><  kt  reach  a  minimum  weight  of  1,000  IDS., 
at  full  age,  in  ordinary  flesh  milking  form. 


96  JUDGING    CATTLE 

JERSEY  CATTLE.  w. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  JERSEY 

CATTLE  CLUB,  MAY  6,  1885.      VOL.  45,  1896— COW.  <J 

Head  —  Small  and   lean ;  face  dished,  broad  between  the  eyes 

and  narrow  between  the  horns 2 

Eyes  —  Full  and  placid  ;  horns  small,  crumpled  and  amber-col- 
ored   i 

Neck  —  T  hin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat  and  not  heavy  at  the 

shoulders    8 

Back  —  Level  t  o  the  setting  on  of  tail i 

Loin  —  Broad  ac  ross  the  loin  6 

Barrel  —  Long,  hooped,  broad  and  deep  at  the  flank 10 

Hips  —  Wide  apart ;  rump  long 10 

Legs  —  Short 2 

Tail  —  Fine,  reaching  the  hocks,  with  good  switch i 

Color  and  mellowness  of  hide  ;  inside  of  ears  yellow 5 

Fore  Udder  —  Full  in  form  and  not  fleshy 13 

Hind  Udder  — Full  in  form  and  well  up  behind n 

Teats  —  Rather  large,  wide  apart  and  squarely  placed 10 

Milk  Veins  —  Prominent 5 

Disposition  —  Quiet 5 

General  Appearance  and  apparent  constitution 10 

Total ioo 

In  judging  heifers,  omit  Nos.  n,  13  and  14. 

FOR   BULLS. 

The  same  scale  of  points  shall  be  used  in  judging  bulls,  omitting 
Nos.  n,  12  and  14,  in  the  order  named  above,  and  making  due  allow- 
ance for  masculinity ;  but  when  bulls  are  exhibited  with  their 
progeny  in  a  separate  class,  add  30  counts  for  progeny. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   CATTLE 


97 


GUERNSEY  CATTLE. 


Dairy  Tempera- 
ment. Consti- 
tution   38 


SCALE    OF    POINTS    ADOPTED    BY    THE    AMERICAN 

GUERNSEY  CATTLE  CLUB,  DEC.   13,   1899 — COW.  (J 

Clean  cut,  lean  face;  strong,  sinewy  jaw; 
wide  muzzle  with  wide  open  nostrils;  full, 
bright  eye  wiih  quiet  and  gentle  expres- 
sion ;  forehead  long  and  broad 5 

Long,  thin  neck  with  strong  juncture  to 
head;  clean  throat.  Backbone  rising  well 
between  shoulder  blades  ;  large,  rugged 
spinal  processes,  indicating  good  develop- 
ment of  the  spinal  cord 5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide  ;  rump  long  ;  wide, 
strong  structure  of  spine  at  setting  on  of 
tail.  Long,  thin  tail  with  good  switch  ; 
Thin,  in-curving  thighs 5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide  apart, 
giving  an  open,  relaxed  conformation;  thin, 
arching  flank 5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong  mus- 
cular and  navel  development,  indicative  of 
capacity  and  vitality 15 

Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feeling  and 
texture  but  not  thick 3 


Milking  Marks 
denoting  quan- 
tity of  flow 10 


Udder  Forma- 
tion ..  ..26 


Indicating  Color 
of  Milk 15 

Milking  Marks 
denoting  qual- 
ity of  flow 6 


Symmetry    and 
Size 5 


Total. 


Escutcheon  wide  on  thighs,  high  and  broad 
with  thigh  ovals 2 

Milk  veins  crooked,  branching  and  promi- 
nent, with  large  or  deep  wells 8 

Udder  full  in  front 8 

Udder  full  and  well  up  behind 8 

Udder  of  large  size  and  capacity 4 

Teats  wide  apart,  squarely  placed  and  of 

good  and  even  size 6 

Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone  of 
tail,  at  base  of  horns,  on  udder,  teats  and 
body  generally.  Hoof  amber  colored 15 

Udder  showing  plenty  of  substance  but  not 
too  meaty 6 

Color  of  hair  a  shade  of  fawn  with  white 
markings.  Cream  colored  nose.  Horns 
amber  colored,  small,  curved  and  not 
coarse.  Hoofs  amber  colored 3 

Size  for  the  breed  :  Mature  cows  four  years 
old  or  over,  about  1,050  Ibs 2 


100 


98 


JUDGING  CATTLE 


SCALE    OF    POINTS    ADOPTED    BY    THE    AMERICAN 
GUERNSEY  CATTLE  CLUB,  DEC.   13,   1899 — BULL. 


Temperament. 
Constitution . .  38 


Dairy  Prepo- 
tency   15 

R  ud  i  m  e  n  tar- 
ies  and  Milk 
Veins 10 

Indicating  Color 
of  Milk  in  Off- 
spring   15 


Symmetry  ana 
Size : 


Clean  cut,  lean  face;  strong,  sinewy  jaw; 
wide  muzzle  with  wide  open  nostrils;  full, 
bright  eye  with  quiet  and  gentle  expres- 
sion ;  forehead  long  and  broad 5 

Long  masculine  neck  with  strong  juncture 
to  head ;  clean  throat.  Backbone  rising 
well  between  shoulder  blades  ;  large,  rug- 
ged spinal  processes,  indicating  good 
development  of  the  spinal  cord 5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide  ;  rump  long  ;  wide, 
strong  structure  of  spine  at  setting  on  of 
tail.  Long,  thin  tail  with  good  switch. 
Thin,  in-curving  thighs 5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide  apart, 
giving  an  open,  relaxed  conformation ; 
thin,  arching  flank „ 5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong  muscle 
and  navel  development,  indicative  of 
capacity  and  vitality 15 

Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feeling  and 
texture  but  not  thick ....  3 

As  shown  by  having  a  great  deal  of  vigor, 
style,  alertness  and  resolute  appearance. .  15 

Rudimentaries  of  good  size,  squarely  and 
broadly  placed  in  front  of  and  free  from 
scrotum.  Milk  veins  prominent 10 

Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone  of 
tail,  at  base  of  horns  and  body  generally, 
hoofs  amber  colored 15 

Color  of  hair  a  shade  of  fawn  with  white 
markings.  Cream  colored  nose.  Horns 
amber  colored,  curving  and  not  coarse. . .  8 

Size  for  the  breed  :  Mature  bulls  four  years 
old  or  over,  about  1,500  Ibs . .  „ 4 

General  appearance  as  indicative  of  the 
power  to  beget  animals  of  strong  dairy 
qualities 10 


Total,.  .  loo 


EXPLANATORY   NOTES    BY   COMMITTEE. 

We  recognize  the  Guernsey  should  be  — • 

First.  A  dairy  animal  with  a  distinctive  dairy  temperament  and 
conformation,  having  £  strong,  nervy  structure  with  a  corresponding 
flow  of  nervous  energy,  and  every  indication  of  capacity  and  vitality 

Second.  In  color  of  hair,  a  shade  of  fawn,  with  white  on  limbs 
and  under  part  of  body  are  considered  the  prevailing  markings,  and 
some  degree  of  uniformity  is  desirable. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  CATTLE     99 

Third.  One  of  the  important  distinguishing  features  of  the  breed 
is  the  presence  of  a  yellow  color  in  the  pigment  of  the  skin,  which  is 
indicative  of  rich  golden  color  in  the  milk.  This  is  very  pronounced 
in  the  Guernsey  and  held  by  her  to  the  greatest  extent  under  all  con- 
ditions of  stabling  and  feed.  The  intensity  of  this  trait  is  more 
marked  in  some  animals  and  families  than  in  others,  but  it  should  be 
kept  at  the  highest  standard.  It  is  fast  being  recognized  that  this 
color  is  accompanied  by  a  superior  flavor  in  the  milk  and  thus  in  the 
butter. 

DAIRY  TEMPERAMENT. 

By  "  dairy  temperament "  is  meant  a  strong  overruling  predispo- 
sition or  tendency  to  turn  the  consumption  of  food  towards  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  with  a  high  content  of  solids,  especially  butter  fat,  as 
against  the  constitutional  tendency  so  often  seen  to  turn  food  into 
flesh.  Even  in  the  strongest  dairy  breeds  there  are  more  or  less  fre- 
quent out-crops  in  male  and  female  of  the  flesh-making  temperament. 
To  breed  from  such  animals,  while  we  are  striving  to  establish  a  pre- 
potent dairy  temperament  or  tendency  is  not  wise.  All  cattle  bred 
specifically  for  dairy  purposes  should  possess  a  clear  and  decided 
dairy  temperament,  for  it  is  that  quality  of  character  we  desire  most 
to  establish,  enlarge  and  perpetuate  in  the  Guernsey  cow. 

This  is  especially  indicated  by  the  shape  of  the  head,  showing 
brain  capacity,  wide  muzzle,  open  nostril,  full  bright  eyes,  feminine 
neck  and  a  construction  of  the  backbone  indicating  a  strong  flow  of 
nerve  power  and  support  from  the  brain  to  all  of  the  maternal  organs. 

CONSTITUTION. 

In  breeding  our  domestic  animals,  especially  for  long  service  like 
the  dairy  cow,  it  is  very  important  that  they  should  have  abundant 
vital  power  which  we  call  "constitution."  But  constitution  must  be 
judged  and  measured  by  the  peculiar  function  the  animal  is  bred  to 
fulfill.  With  the  race  horse  the  function  is  speed ;  with  the  steer,  the 
laying  on  of  flesh  ;  with  the  dairy  cow,  the  production  of  milk  solids. 
In  all  these  various  functions  the  animal  that  is  to  represent  any  one 
of  them  must  show  not  only  large  capacity  in  the  line  of  that  func- 
tion but  also  the  ability  to  endure  long  and  well  the  strain  of  such 
function  and  keep  in  good  health.  Constitution  is  best  indicated  by 
a  full  development  at  the  navel  and  strong  abdominal  walls,  showing 
that  the  animal  when  in  a  prenatal  state  was  abundantly  nourished  by 
the  mother  through  a  well  developed  umbilical  cord. 

PREPOTENCY. 

In  the  scale  for  bulls,  for  the  first  time,  we  believe,  in  the  history 
of  dairy  breeds,  this  point  is  introduced.  The  reason  we  have 
included  it  is  that  "  prepotency  "  is  the  chief  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  all  male  breeding  animals.  The  pedigree  and  conforma- 
tion is  often  all  that  can  be  desired,  but  because  the  bull  is  lacking  in 
prepotent  breeding  power  he  is  an  expensive  failure.  This  quality  is, 
in  a  sense,  difficult  to  perceive  or  describe,  but  we  know  certain  ani- 
mals have  it  in  high  degree  and  others  fail  of  it  completely.  It  is 
fairly  well  indicated  by  vigor  of  appearance,  strong,  resolute  bearing 
and  abundant  nervous  energy.  We  would  distinguish  this  from  an 
ugly  disposition.  A  bull  is  ugly  by  the  way  he  is  handled  rather  than 
by  his  breeding.  What  we  want  is  strong,  impressive  blood.  A  dull, 
sluggish  spirit  and  action,  we  consider  it  indicative  of  a  lack  of  true 


100  JUDGING   CATTLE 

dairy  prepotency,  but  we  would  prefer  to  breed  to  a  rather  sluggish 
appearing  bull  with  first-class  rudimentaries  than  to  a  stylish  one 
with  badly  placed  rudimentaries. 

RUDIMENTARY  TEATS. 

We  consider  that  a  well  balanced  and  well  shaped  udder  in  the 
cow  is  largely  due  to  the  way  the  rudimentary  teats  are  placed  on  the 
sire.  If  they  are  crowded  close  together  the  result  is  likely  to  be 
narrow,  pointed  udders.  If  they  are  placed  well  apart,  of  good  size, 
and  well  forward  of  the  scrotum,  the  effect,  we  think,  will  be  to 
influence  largely  the  production  of  well  shaped  udders  in  the  result- 
ing heifers  and  counteract  the  tendency  to  ill  shaped  udders  inher- 
itable from  dams  deficient  in  this  respect.  We  believe  the  future 
excellence  of  the  Guernsey  cow  will  be  greatly  aided  by  close  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  her  breeders  to  this  point. 


RED  POLLED  CATTLE 


DESCRIPTION  OF  STANDARD  AND  SCALE   OF  POINTS  FOR  RED  POLLED   CATTLE 

Scurs,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a  hcrny  growth  on  the  head.         J% 
Any  white  spots  on  body  above  lower  line  or  brush  of  tail. 

COLOR — Any  shade  of  red.     The  switch  of  tail  and  udder  may  be  white,    o 
with  some  white  running   forward  to   the  naval.     Nose   of  a   clear   P- 
flesh  color.     Interior  of  ears  should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy  color.  .      2 
OBJECTIONS — An    extreme    dark,   or    an   extreme    light   red    is    not 
desirable.     A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 

HEAD — Of  medium  length,  wide  between  the  eyes,  sloping  gradually 
from  above  eyes  to  poll.  The  poll  well  defined  and  prominent,  with 
a  sharp  dip  behind  it  in  center  of  head.  Ears  of  medium  size  and 
well  carried.  Eyes  prominent ;  face  well  dished  between  the  eyes. 

Muzzle  wide  with   large  nostrils 6 

OBJECTIONS — A  rounding  or  flat  appearance  of  the  poll.  Head 
too  long  and  narrow. 

NECK — Of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  and  straight  from  head  to  top  of 
shoulder  with  inclination  to  arch  when  fattened,  and  may  show 
folds  of  loose  skin  underneath  when  in  milking  form 3 

SHOULDER — Of  medium  thickness   and  smoothly  laid,  coming  up  level 

with    line   of   back    6 

OBJECTIONS — Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the  appearance  of 
weakness  in  heart  girth.  Shoulder  protruding  above  line  of 
back. 

CHEST — Broad  and  deep,  insuring  constitution.     Brisket  prominent  and 

coming  well  forward   ]  0 

BACK  AND  RIBS — Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level  from  withers 
to  the  setting  on  of  tail  ;  moderately  wide,  with  spring  of  ribs  start- 
ing from  the  back  bone,  giving  a  rounding  appearance,  with  ribs 

flat  and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

OBJECTIONS — Front   ribs  too  straight,   causing  depression   back  of 
shoulders.     Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top  line. 

HIPS — Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well  covered 3 

QUARTERS — Of   good    length,    full,    rounding,    and    level ;    thighs    wide, 

roomy,   and  not  too  meaty 6 

OBJECTIONS — Prominent  hooks,   sunken   quarters. 

TAIL — Tail  head  strong  and  setting  well  forward,   long  and  tapering  to 

a  full   switch    2 

LEGS — Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium  bone 3 

OBJECTIONS — Hocks  crooked,  legs  placed  too  close  together. 

FORE-UDDER — Full    and    flexible,    reaching    well     forward,     extending 

down  level  with  hind-udder    10 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR    CATTLE  101 

Points 

HIND-UDDER — Full   and  well   up   behind 10 

TEATS — Well  placed,  wide  apart  and  of  reasonablely  good  size 4 

OBJECTIONS — Lack   of   development,    especially   in    forward    udder. 
Udder   too   deep,    "bottle    shaped"    and   teats   too    close    together. 
Teats  unevenly  placed  and  either  too  large  or  too  small. 
MILK   VEINS — Of   medium    size,    full,    flexible,    extending   well    forward, 

well  retained  within  the  body;  milk  wells  of  medium  size C 

HIDE — Loose,   mellow,   flexible,    inclined  to   thickness,    with    a   good   full 

coat  of   soft   hair 5 

OBJECTIONS — Thin,   papery   skin,   or   wiry   hair. 
CONDITION — Healthy  ;  moderate  to  liberal  flesh  evenly  laid  on  ;   glossy 

coat ;  animal  presented  in  good  bloom 10 

Total     .100 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION — Cow  medium  wedge  form,  low  set,   top  and 

bottom  lines  straight  except  at  flank,  weight  1300  Ibs.   to   1500  Ibs. 

when  mature  and  finished. 

Scurs,  or  any  evidence  ivhatever  of  a  horny  growth  on  the  head.     Any 
white  spots  on  body  above  lower  line  or  brush  cf  tail. 
COLOR — Any   shade   of    red.      The    switch    of   tail    may   be    white,    with 

some   white   running   forward   to   the   naval.      Nose  of   a   clear   flesh 

color.     Interior  of  ears  should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy  color 2 

OBJECTIONS — An    extreme    dark   or    an    extreme    light    red    is   not 

desirable.     A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 
HEAD — Wide,    strong    and    masculine,    relatively    short.      Poll    stronger 

and   less   prominent   than    in   cow.      Ears   of   medium   size   and   well 

carried  ;   eyes  prominent;   muzzle  wide  with   large   nostrils 12 

OBJECTIONS — Long,    narrow,    or    lacking    in    masculine    character. 
NECK — Of    medium    length,    full    crest,    of    good    thickness,    strong,    of 

masculine    appearance     5 

SHOULDER — Of  medium  thickness   and  smoothly  laid,  coming  up   level 

with    line  of   back    8 

OBJECTIONS — Shoulder    too    prominent,    giving    the    appearance    of 
weakness    in    heart    girth,    shoulder    protruding    above    line    of 
back. 
CHEST — Broad  and  deep,  ins'uring  constitution.     Brisket  prominent  and 

coming   well    forward    12 

BACK  AND   RIBS— Back  medium  long,   straight  and  level  from  withers 

to  setting  on  of  tail,  moderately  wide,  with  spring  of  ribs   starting 

from   the   back  bone,    giving   a   rounding   appearance,  with   ribs   flat 

and    fairly    wide    apart 14 

OBJECTIONS — Front   ribs  too  straight,   causing  depression   back  of 
shoulders.     Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top  line. 

HIPS — Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well  covered 3 

QUARTERS — Of  good  length,  full,  rounding,  and  level ;  thighs  wide  and 

moderately   full,   deep    6 

OBJECTIONS — Prominent  hooks,  sunken  quarters. 
TAIL — Tail  head  strong  and  setting  well  forward,  long  and  tapering  to 

a  full   switch    2 

LEGS — Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium  bone 3 

OBJECTIONS — Hocks  crooked  ;   legs  placed  too  close  together. 
RUDIMENTARIES — Large,  wide  apart,   and  placed  well  forward 12 

Position    of    rudimentaries    6 

OBJECTIONS — Rudimentaries    placed    back    on    scrotum,    or   placed 
too  close  together,  indicating  tendency  to  transmit  badly  formed 
udders. 
HIDE — Loose,  mellow,  flexible,   inclined  to   thickness,  with   a   good   full 

coat  of   soft  hair    5 

OBJECTIONS — Thin,  papery  skin,  or  wiry  hair. 
CONDITION — Healthy  ;  moderate  to  liberal  flesh  evenly  laid  on  ;   glossy 

coat ;  animal  presented  in  good  bloom .    10 

Total     100 

GENERAL    DESCRIPTION — Strong,    impressive,    low    set,    and    of    good 

carriage.     Weight  1800  Ibs.  to  2000  Ibs.  when  mature  and  finished. 


102  JUDGING   CATTLE 


DUTCH  BELTED  CATTLE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  DUTCH  BELTED 

CATTLE  ASSOCIATION  —  COW.  <j 

Body  —  Color  black,  with  a  clearly  defined  continuous  white 

belt.     The  belt  to  be  of  medium  width,  beginning  behind  the 

shoulder  and  extending  nearly  to  the  hips  ..................       8 

Head  —  Comparatively  long  and  somewhat  dishing;  broad  be- 

tween the  eyes.  Poll  prominent  ;  muzzle  fine  ;  dark  tongue  6 
Eyes  —  Black,  full  and  mild.  Horns  long  compared  with  their 

diameter  .......  ,  .........................................       4 

Neck  —  Fine  and  moderately  thin  and  should  harmonize  in  sym- 

metry with  the  head  and  shoulders  ...................  .....       6 

Shoulders  —  Fine  at  the  top,  becoming  deep  and  broad  as  they 

extend  backward  and  downward,  with  a  low  chest  ..........       4 

Barrel  —  Large  and  deep  with  well  developed  abdomen;  ribs 

well  rounded  and  free  from  fat  .............................     10 

Hips  —  Broad,  and  chine  level,  with  full  loin  ...................     10 

Rump  —  High,  long  and  broad  ................................       6 

Hind  Quarters  —  Long  and  deep,  rear  line  in-curving.  Tail 

long,  slim,  tapering  to  a  full  switch  ........................       8 

Legs  —  Short,  clean,  standing  well  apart  .......................       3 

Udder  —  Large,  well  developed  front  and  rear.  Teats  of  con- 

venient size  and  wide  apart;  mammary  veins  large,  long  and 

crooked,  entering  large  orifices  ............................     20 

Escutcheon  ..................................................       2 

Hair  —  Fine  and  soft  ;  skin  of  moderate  thickness,  of  a  rich  dark 

or  yellow  color  ...................................  .  .......       3 

Quiet  Disposition  and  free  from  excessive  fat  ..................      4 

General  Condition  and  apparent  constitution  ..................  6 

Total  ...................   ............................  loo 

FOR   BULLS. 

The  scale  of  points  for  males  shall  be  the  same  as  those  given  for 
females,  except  that  "Udder"  shall  be  omitted  and  the  bull  credited  10 
points  for  size  and  wide  spread  placing  of  rudimentary  teats,  5  points 
additional  for  development  of  shoulder,  and  5  additional  points  for 
perfection  of  belt. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR  CATTLE  103 


AYRSHIRE  CATTLE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  AYRSHIRE  § 

BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION,  FEB.  21,   1889 — BULL.  t> 

The  points  desirable  in  the  female  are  generally  so  in  the  male, 
but  must,  of  course,  be  attended  with  that  masculine  character 
which  is  inseparable  from  a  strong  and  vigorous  constitution. 
Even  a  degree  of  coarseness  is  admissible ;  but  then  it  must 
be  so  exclusively  of  masculine  description  as  never  to  be  dis- 
covered in  a  female  of  his  get. 

The  Head  of  the  bull  should  be  shorter  than  that  of  the  cow,  but 
the  frontal  bone  should  be  broad,  the  muzzle  good  size, 
throat  nearly  free  from  hanging  folds,  eyes  full.  The  horns 
should  have  an  upward  turn,  with  sufficient  size  at  the  base 

to  indicate  strength  of  constitution TO 

Neck  —  Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  and  large  in  those 

muscles  which  indicate  power  and  strength 10 

Fore  Quarters— Shoulders  close  to  the  body,  without  any  hollow 
space  behind;  chest  broad,  brisket  deep  and  well  developed, 

but  not  too  large 7 

Back  —  Short  and  straight ;  spine  sufficiently  well  defined,  but 
not  in  the  same  degree  as  in  the  cow  ;  ribs  well  sprung  and 

body  deep  in  the  flanks 10 

Hind  Quarters — Long,  broad  and  straight;  hip  bones  wide 
apart ;  pelvis  long,  broad  and  straight ;  tail  set  on  a  level 

with  the  back  ;  thighs  deep  and  broad 10 

Scrotum  —  Large,  with  well  developed  teats  in  front 7 

Legs  —  Short  in  proportion  to  size,  joints  firm.     Hind  legs  well 

apart,  and  not  to  cross  in  walking 5 

Skin  —  Yellow,  soft,  elastic  and  of  medium  thickness 10 

Color — Red  of  any  shade,  brown  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of 

these —  each  color  being  distinctly  defined 3 

Average  Live  Weight  at  maturity,  about  1,500 10 

General  Appearance,  including  style  and  movement 15 

Escutcheon,  large  and  fine  development 3 

Total..  .  100 


104  JUDGING   CATTLE 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  AYRSHIRE 


BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION,  FEB.  21,   1889 — COW. 

& 

The  following  scale  of  points  for  the  Ayrshire  cow  were 
adopted  —  being  similar  to  the  scale  adopted  in  Scotland  in 
1884  —  and  changed  in  a  few  points  to  render  them  applicable 
to  this  country  : 

Head  —  Short ;  forehead  wide  ;  nose,  fine  between  the  muzzle 
and  the  eyes ;  muzzle,  large ;  eyes,  full  and  lively  ;  horns, 

wide  set  on,  inclining  upwards 10 

Neck  —  Moderately  long  and  straight  from  the  head  to  the  top  of 
the  shoulder,  free  from  loose  skin  on  the  under  side,  fine  at 
its  junction  with  the  head,  and  enlarging  symmetrically 

towards  the  shoulder 5 

Fore  Quarters  —  Shoulders  sloping;  withers  fine;  chest  suffi- 
ciently broad  and  deep  to  insure  constitution  ;  brisket  and 
whole  fore  quarters  light,  the  cow  gradually  increasing  in 

depth  and  width  backwards 5 

Back  —  Short  and  straight ;  spine  well  defined,  especially  at  the 

shoulders  ;  short  ribs,  arched  ;  the  body  deep  at  the  flanks. .     10 
Hind  Quarters  —  Long,  broad  and  straight,  hook  bones  wide 
apart  and  not  overlaid  with  fat;  thighs,  deep  and  broad;  tail, 

long,  slender,  and  set  on  level  with  the  back 8 

Udder  —  Capacious  and  not  fleshy,  hind  part  broad  and  firmly 
attached  to  the  body,  the  sole  nearly  level  and  extending 
well  forward  ;  milk  veins  about  udder  and  abdomen  well 
developed  ;  the  teats  from  2%  to  3  inches  in  length,  equal  in 
thickness  —  the  thickness  being  in  proportion  to  the  length — 
hanging  perpendicularly,  their  distance  apart  at  the  sides 
should  be  equal  to  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  vessel,  and 

across  to  about  one-half  of  the  breadth 30 

Legs  —  Short  in  proportion  to  size,  the  bones  fine,  the  joints  firm.      3 
Skin  —  Yellow,  soft  and  elastic,  and  covered  with  soft,  close, 

woolly  hair 5 

Color  —  Red  of  any  shade,  brown  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of 

these  —  each  color  being  distinctly  defined 3 

Average  Live  Weight  in  full  milk,  about  1,000  pounds 8 

General  Appearance,  including  style  and  movement 10 

Escutcheon  —  Large  and  fine  development  3 

Total..  .  100 


Ayrshire  cow,  NELLIE  OSBORNE.  winner  of  Sweepstakes  Gold  Medal  for 
breed  at  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  1893.  Owned  by  D.  Drun\ 
mond,  Petite  Cote,  Quebec. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  AYRSHIRE   CATTLE 

1*HIS  BREED  of  Scotch  dairy  cattle  originated  under  the  rugged  conditions  of  Ayr- 
shire and  in  their  type  and  general  characteristics  they  exemplify  the  form  and 
quality  which  would  be  called  for  in  a  dairy  animal  required  to  make  the  most  eco- 
nomical use  of  their  food  and  do  the  best  under  conditions  too  severe  for  finer  and 
more  delicate  cattle.  The  head  is  slim,  rather  long  in  the  face  and  surmounted 
with  a  horn  not  wholly  devoid  of  strength,  the  neck  somewhat  short  is  clean  cut 
though  not  delicate,  the  shoulder  is  sharp  and  the  chest  full  and  deep,  the  body  is 
straight  in  its  top  lines,  slightly  more  compact  than  usually  found  in  the  dairy  type 
but  has  the  volume  which  invariably  results  in  large  capacity  for  consumption  and 
production.  The  hind  quarter  is  moderately  wide  and  covered  with  flesh  while 
the  thigh  is  thin  and  the  udder  long  and  excellent  in  its  proportion.  The  size  and 
the  placing  of  the  teats  is  a  feature  which  calls  for  careful  attention  in  ranking 
representatives  of  this  breed.  See  official  scale  of  points,  pages  103  and  JOi. 


Holstein-Friesian  cow  COLANTHA  4th,  in  her  four  year  old  and  six  year 
old  form.  The  lower  illustration  is  a  photo  of  her  as  a  four  year  old.  Com- 
pare this  with  the  upper,  which  is  a  photo  of  her  as  a  six  year  old,  and  the 
changes  that  take  place  in  a  dairy  cow  as  she  approaches  maturity  may  be 
seen.  This  cow  is  owned  by  Messrs.  Gillett  &  Son,  of  Rosendale,  Wis.,  and 
her  records  are  as  follows : 

Milk,  1  day.    Butter,  1  w'k.    Milk,  1  y'r.    Butter  Fat,  1  y'r. 

52.2  fts.  14.1  ft  s. 

64.8  B&s.  18.7  t>s. 

70.2  fl>s.  21.1  R>s. 


AGE. 

2  years. 

3  years. 

4  years. 

5  years. 

6  years. 


77.3  fts. 


Milk,  1  y'r. 

12.463.4  Ibs. 

14.951.5  Ibs. 
13,992,2  5>s. 
14,481.8  B>s. 
14,782.7  BT.S. 


577.7  tt>s. 
533.9  fts. 


562.9  tt>s. 


24.5  B>s. 

This  cow  was  also  first  in  the  official  tests  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  Asso- 
ciation in  1900,  and  also  winner  of  first  prize  in  tests  for  economy  of  produc- 
tion making  19.6  Ibs.  fat  in  one  week  at  a  food  cost  of  6  3-5  cents  per  pound. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  CATTLE 

*pHE  ORIGINAL  type  of  this  breed  had  more  size  of  frame  than  that  which  char- 
acterizes the  modern  representative.  The  conditions  existing  have  favored 
the  production  of  a  large  dairy  animal  with  extreme  development  for  yielding 
milk.  The  type  which  is  now  common  shows  more  refinement  but  still  has  the 
characteristics  in  the  main  which  identified  the  first  importations.  The  color 
should  be  black  and  white,  with  no  mixture  of  this  or  tinge  of  brown.  The  head 
should  be  lengthy,  generally  because  of  a  long  face,  the  eye  should  be  large  and 
bright  and  that  portion  of  the  head  between  the  horn  and  the  eye  should  be  full. 
The  neck  should  be  slim  and  lengthy,  the  shoulder  sharp  and  fitting  well  while  the 
chest  should  be  deep  and  the  body  have  for  its  most  noted  feature  a  large  develop- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs.  The  loins  should  be  strong  though  bare  of  flesh  and 
the  hind  quarters  straight  and  angular  and  the  thighs  thin.  The  frame  should 
show  as  much  refinement  as  possible  without  any  indication  of  delicacy.  The  gen- 
eral conformation  should  be  such  as  to  favor  large  capacity  for  the  consumption  of 
food  and  the  production  of  the  largest  quantity  of  milk.  See  official  scale  of  points- 
page  95. 


PARADISE  II  97112,  bred  by  H.  C.  Taylor,  Orfordvilie,  Wis.  Record,  18  Ibs. 
4  ounces.  Owned  by  A.  O.  Auten,  Jersey  ville,  Illinois.  Dropped  Oct.  17, 1893. 
Good  type  of  a  dairy  cow.  Udder  very  capacious  and  very  hand- 
somely developed,  teats  large  and  well  placed,  veins  very  prominent.  Not 
only  does  the  cow  show  unusual  merit  as  to  form,  but  the  calf  is  especially 
illustrative  of  the  type  desirable  for  dairy  purposes. 


Guernsey  bull  BENJAMIN,  owned  by  Geo.  O.  Hill  &  Son,  Rosendale  Wis  a 
noted  prize  winner  in  the  show  rings,  illustrating  the  main  features  of  form 
required  in  a  dairy  bull. 


Holstein  herd  owned  by  Messrs.  W.  B.  Smith  &  Sons,  of  Columbus,  O.  In 
this  remarkable  photograph  of  a  large  herd  there  cannot  be  found  a  single 
animal  which  does  not  illustrate  desirable  dairy  type.* 


Photo  by  Schreiber. 

Photograph  of  the  head  of  the  Jersey  cow,  BUTTERCUP.  This  photo- 
graph shows  in  an  unusual  degree  the  conformation  of  head  and  neck  which 
is  desirable  in  a  highly  bred  Jersey. 


A  pair  of  Holstein  calves  bred  by  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  illus- 
trating the  type  most  desirable  for  calves  intended  for  dairy  purposes. 


A  photograph  of  some  Jersey  calves,  taken  at  the  stock  farm  of  H.  O. 

The  heads  Illustrate  the 


JUDGING  SHEEP. 


4*1 


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CHAPTER  HI. 
JUDGING  SHEEP. 

152.  Method  of  Examining  Sheep.  In  examining 
sheep  it  is  advisable  to  adopt  a  definite  course  of  pro- 
cedure so  that  nothing  may  be  overlooked  and  each  mo- 
tion made  to  disclose  something  in  regard  to  the  merit  or 
demerit  of  the  sheep.  In  the  show  ring  that  contains  as 
many  as  ten  sheep  in  a  class  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  judge 
must  work  quickly  as  well  as  accurately.  And  there  is 
nothing  that  will  contribute  to  both  of  these  like  examin- 
ing each  part  of  the  sheep  in  regular  order.  The  best 
course  to  follow  is  perhaps  to  begin  at  the  head,  pressing 
down  the  lower  lip  with  the  finger  and  thumb  so  that  the 
teeth  may  be  seen  and  the  age  estimated.  Then  with  the 
hands  under  the  jaw  look  carefully  over  the  head,  seeing 
that  the,  eyes  are  all  right,  the  head  a  good  shape  and  no 
appearance  of  horns  in  those  breeds  that  are  hornless, 
while  in  those  that  possess  these,  note  that  they  spring 
clear  from  the  head.  Then  pass  to  the  neck,  feeling  with 
the  hands  the  fullness  of  it,  and  in  addition  observing  the 
length  and  the  way  it  swells  to  meet  the  shoulder  at  the 
shoulder  vein.  Pass  down  to  the  brisket,  putting  one 
hand  on  the  floor  of  the  chest  and  the  other  at  the  top  of 
the  shoulder  and  in  this  way  form  an  idea  as  to  the  depth 
of  the  sheep  through  these  parts.  Next  note  the  shoulder, 
observing  how  it  is  covered  with  flesh  along  the  side  and 
top  and  also  taking  the  girth  of  the  spring  of  the  ribs 
with  the  sheep.  From  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  using  one 
hand,  follow  the  line  of  the  back  to  the  end  of  the  body. 
By  carefully  handling  these  parts  the  fleshiness  of  the 


108  JUDGING   SHEEP 

sheep  or  the  way  the  ribs  are  covered  and  the  straightness 
iof  the  back  are  determined  and  at  the  same  time  the 
spring  of  the  ribs  is  made  apparent.  The  width  of  the 
loin  should  then  be  taken  and  also  its  covering  and  thick- 
ness. The  width  of  the  hips  should  next  be  observed, 
and  turning  to  one  side  and  using  two  hands  the  length 
from  the  hip  to  the  end  of  the  hind  quarter  should  be 
made  apparent  between  the  two  points.  Then  the  width 
of  the  hind  quarter  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  carried 
back  and  the  fullness  should  also  be  examined.  Follow- 
ing the  joint  towards  the  leg  the  development  of  the 
thigh  on  the  outside  requires  examination,  and  then  with 
the  hand  the  quarters  should  be  firmly  felt. 

153.  Deception     Due    to     Trimming.       In  this  way 
the  sheep  has  been  thoroughly  examined  as  to  form,  but 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  hands  should  be  thor- 
oughly relied  on  to  discover  all  defects  of  form,  and  un- 
less the  sheep  is  carefully  handled  the  examiner  is  very 
likely  to  be  deceived.     The  wool  of  all  show  sheep  and 
fat    stock    of    the    medium    wool    classes,    is    always 
trimmed,  and  the  trimmer  possessing  skill  can  give  any 
desired  form  to  sheep,  providing  the  wool  is  long  enough 
and  the  sheep  approaches  somewhat  towards  the  form 
which  is  being  imitated. 

154.  Estimating     Age     by     the    Teeth.         The  o*der 
of  appearance  of  the  nippers  or  incisors  in  sheep  is  a 
fairly  reliable  method  of  telling  their  age.     The  sheep 
has  eight  permanent  incisors,  and  these  appear  in  regular 
order  in  supplanting  the  milk  teeth.     The  milk  teeth  can 
always  be  told  from  the  permanent  incisors  by  the  fact 
that    they   are   narrower.     The    permanent   incisors    are 
broad  and  wide  and  widened  considerably  towards  the 
top.     The  first  or  central  pair  of  incisors  appear  when 
the  sheep  is  slightly  over  one  year  old.     The  next  pair, 


Illustrations  of  Proper  Methods  of  Handling  Sheep  in  Judging  Them, 


Looking  at  the  face   and  head  and 
feeling  the  fullness,  of  the  neck. 


With  one  hand  oh  top  and  the  other 
below  estimate  the  depth  of  the  chest. 


Notice  the  heart  girth  by  the  dis- 
tance between  the  hands. 


With  the  hand  perfectly  flat  note  the 
levelness  of  the  back,  its  firmness  and 
covering. 


. 


Illustrations  of  Proper  Methods  of  Handling  Sheep  in  Judging  Them— Continued. 


Taking   the  width  of  the  loin; 
note  the  thickness. 


also  With  one  hand  at  the  hip  joint  and 

the  other  at  the  end  of  the  body,  the 
length  of  the  hind  quarters  may  be 
estimated. 


Noting    the   degree    to   which  the 
width  of  body  is  carried  to  the  end. 


Feeling  the  development  in  the  leg 
of  mutton. 


Illustrations  of  Proper  Methods  of  Handling  Sheep  in  Judging  Them— Continued. 


Manner  and  place  of  opening  fleece  Manner  and  place  of  opening  fleece 

to  see  the  finest  quality  of  wool.  ...to  see  the  poorest  quality  of  wool. 


Illustration  showing  the  proper  method  of  holding  the  hand  in  examm- 
ingsheep.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  illustration  those  examining  the 
sheep  hold  the  fingers  together  in  a  sloping  manner,  in  this  way  it  is  possible 
to  feel  the  form  of  the  sheep  without  disturbing  or  breaking  the  fleece.  The 
very  common  method  of  sticking  the  fingers  into  the  fleece  makes  holes  in  it 
which  greatly  annoy  the  shepherd. 


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FOR   MUTTON   AND   WOOL  109 

that  is,  one  on  each  side  of  the  central  pair,  appear  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  that  is  when  the  sheep  is  two  years  old ; 
the  third  pair  appear  when  the  sheep  is  slightly  over  two 
years  old,  and  the  fourth  pair  when  it  is  between  four 
and  five  years  old.  This  completes  the  number  of  incisors 
and  a  complete  set  always  indicates  that  the  sheep  is  be- 
tween four  and  five  years  old.  High  feeding  or  forcing 
hastens  the  age  indications,  so  that  the  variations  are 
often  unnoticeable,  especially  in  show  sheep  or  those  im- 
ported from  Great  Britain. 

I.      JUDGING   SHEEP    FOR    MUTTON   AND   WOOI,. 

In  judging  fat  sheep  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the 
needs  of  the  feeder  of  this  class  of  stock,  the  demands  of 
the  butcher  for  lambs  and  mutton,  the  desires  of  the  con- 
sumer and  the  requirements  of  the  manufacturer  of 
wool.  These  requisites  must  be  merged  together  to  ar- 
rive at  a  correct  view  of  the  whole. 

155.  The  Feeding  Type  That  Gives  the  Best 
Gains.  In  considering  the  type  of  sheep  which  gives 
the  best  results  in  the  feed  lot,  we  have  only  to  have  in 
view  the  type  that  gives  us  the  greatest  vigor,  insuring 
an  active  digestion  and  the  mast  constitution,  so  that 
nothing  may  upset  the  sheep  in  the  rapid  progress  de-- 
sired. In  this  connection  it  will  be  well  to  report  the  re- 
sults of  an  experiment  made  at  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station  by  the  writer.  Two  lots  of  lambs  were  se- 
lected ;  the  one  bred  by  the  station  showing  in  fleece  and 
form  a  high  degree  of  merit  for  grade  sheep.  These 
lambs  were  bred  from  high  grade  ewes  and  the  rams 
had  been  selected  at  high  prices  for  some  years  to  make 
the  best  blend  with  the  ewes.  The  lambs  were  very  uni- 
form as  to  type  and  they  showed  what  might  be  called  an 


110  JUDGING  SHEEP 

unusual  degree  of  merit  for  ordinary  feeding  lambs.  To 
compare  with  these,  some  lambs  native  to  northern  Wis- 
consin showing  the  type  common  to  that  territory  were 
put  upon  similar  rations.  The  representatives  of  both 
these  kinds  of  lambs,  in  addition  to  having  the  same  kind 
of  food,  were  kept  under  identically  the  same  conditions, 
putting  both  lots  of  lambs  in  the  fed  lot  at  three  cents  a 
pound  and  taking  them  out  at  four  cents  at  the  end  of 
the  feeding  period.  The  well  bred  lambs  of  good  feed- 
ing type  after  paying  for  the  feed  that  they  ate,  at  current 
prices  yielded  a  profit  of  $1.13  per  head;  while  those 
representative  of  the  poor  type  being  indiscriminately 
bred  only  yielded  a  profit  of  $ .  60  per  head.  The  lambs 
of  the  best  type  ate  more  food,  but  they  made  more  than 
a  corresponding  gain,  and  the  chief  point  should  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  that  the  profit  from  each  one  of  them  was 
just  twice  as  much  as  that  from  those  being  of  inferior 
type. 

156.  The  Feeding  Type  Bringing  Most  at 
Maturity  In  the  selection  of  feeding  lambs  the  feeder 
has  to  keep  in  view  the  fact  that  there  is  most  demand 
for  the  lamb  that  when  fat  weighs  about  100  pounds. 
Such  a  lamb  has  the  quickest  sale  at  the  highest  price 
per  pound.  This  type  is  one  that  is  not  too  heavy  boned 
and  large  framed,  but  such  as  require  only  a  medium 
amount  of  flesh  to  make  the  carcass  smooth  and  plump  at 
the  weight  indicated.  It  is  the  low  set,  thick  type  that 
possesses  these  qualities  to  the  highest  degree.  To  se- 
cure the  greatest  profit  in  feeding  it  is  desirable  to  have 
the  gain  made  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  younger  the 
animal  the  cheaper  the  cost  of  gain,  and  it  is  that  feature 
that  makes  early  maturity  such  an  important  considera- 
tion in  the  different  classes  of  stock.  The  market  favors 


The  three  photos  on  the  right  hand  show  a  sheep  of  a 
bad  feeding  type.  Note  narrowness  of  face,  shallowness 
of  chest,  with  length  of  leg  in  both  front  and  side  view, 
while  the  hind  view  shows  thinness  of  leg  of  mutton. 
The  three  photos  on  the  left  show  a  good  feeding  type 
in  breadth  of  face,  depth  and  width  of  chest,  spring  of 
rib,  squareness  of  form  throughout  and  fu Jncss  of  leg 
of  mutton.  The  sheep  used  for  these  illustrations  were 
selected  from  the  lots  experimented  with  at  the  Wis- 
consin station  and  referred  to  in  paragraph  155 


Photographs  or  the  backs  of  two  carcasses  are  shown  in  tfco  upper  row ; 
the  one  on  the  left,  a  fine  wool  wether,  shows  lack  of  development  in  leg  of 
mutton,  narrowness  and  thinness  of  flesh  on  back.  The  one  on  the  right,  a 
Shropshire  grade,  shows  much  more  development  and  covering  in  valuable 
parts.  Front  views  of  the  same  carcasses  are  shown  in  the  lower  row.  The 
one  on  the  left,  a  fine  wool  grade,  showing  lack  of  development  in  parts 
desired  by  the  butcher,  in  comparison  with  the  Shropshire  grade  on  the  right. 


Location  of  cuts  in  a  mutton  carcass  aud  their  valuation  in  the  Chicago 
market. 


Summarizing  an  experiment  with  seven  special  mutton  breeds,  Prof.  Our- 
tiss  gives  the  relative  value  of  these  relative  parts  as  follows :  Leg,  22.2 
pounds,  at  10  cents,  $2.22  ;  loin,  17.5  pounds,  at  9  cents,  81.57;  rib,  14.5  pounds, 
at  9  cents,  fl.30;  chuck,  19.8  pounds,  at  1%  cents,  34  cents  :  total,  $5.43. 


FOR   MUTTON  AND  WOOL  111 

a  lamb  of  the  weight  mentioned,  because  as  a  rule  such 
usually  dress  better  and  the  cuts  are  smaller. 

157.  The    Type    Desired    by    the    Butcher.       If  we 

were  to  consider  only  the  things  that  have  the  most  im- 
portance in  the  view  of  the  butcher  we  would  have  a  very 
queerly  formed  sheep  presented  to  us.  The  butcher  is 
very  desirous  of  obtaining  the  greatest  percentage  of 
valuable  cuts,  consequently  the  different  parts  of  a  lamb 
from  a  butcher's  point  of  view  show  a  wide  variation 
from  the  feeder's  and  breeder's  ideal.  In  the  lamb 
that  is  ideal  from  a  butcher's  standpoint,  it  would 
not  be  necessary  to  have  any  neck,  chest,  digestive 
apparatus  or  leg.  As  may  be  seen  from  the  illustration 
herewith  submitted,  the  neck  has  a  value  of  only  one  cent 
per  pound,  the  shoulder  is  two  cents  and  the  shanks  the 
same.  The  rib  running  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to 
the  loin  has  a  value  of  nine  cents  per  pound,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  loin ;  while  the  leg  of  mutton  has  the  high- 
est value  per  pound,  as  that  is  quoted  at  ten  cents.  The 
breast  and  chest  have  the  very  low  value  of  two  cents  per 
pound.  It  is  very  evident  from  these  facts  that  the  back, 
loin  and  the  leg  are  the  three  division^  that  are  most 
prized  in  the  lambs  that  would  be  ideal  from  the  butcher's 
standpoint. 

158.  Quality.     After  the  form  of  the  sheep  has  been 
carefully  examined  the  quality  should  be  noticed.     This 
means  the  cleanness  of  the  bone,  fineness  of  the  skin  and 
the  nature  of  the  hair  which  covers  the  face  and  legs. 
These  are  important  features  in  either  breeding  or  fat 
sheep.    It  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  from  the  butcher's 
standpoint,   because  the  waste  is  less   from  a  sheep  of 
good  quality  than  it  is  from  one  that  is  inferior.     The 
range  in  the  percentage  of  dressed  weight  in  lambs  will 
vary   from    50   per   cent   to   60   per   cent  of   their   live 


112  JUDGING  SHEEP 

weight,  so  that  it  will  be  understood  that  quality  is  an 
important  factor  from  the  butcher's  standpoint,  where  the 
profit  from  the  carcass  is  largely  determined  by  the 
dressed  weight  returns. 

159.  The     Importance    of    Condition.         Not  only 
should  a  lamb  be  well  developed  in  the  parts  indicated  to 
satisfy  the  butcher,  but  the  flesh  should  be  uniformly 
deep  over  the  parts ;  this  is  a  factor  in  giving  a  high  per- 
centage of  dressed  weight  which  adds  greatly  to  the  profit 
of  the  carcass.     While  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  lamb 
should  weigh    about  100  pounds,  it  is  even  more  so  that 
the  condition  should  be  equally  satisfactory  to  produce  the 
highest  price.     As  indicating  the  progress  of  the  lambs 
in  the  feed  lot  in  this  particular  it  would  perhaps  be  ad- 
visable to  follow  them  through  their  development. 

When  put  in  the  feed  lot  under  proper  conditions, 
lambs  will  usually  begin  to  show  the  influence  of  good 
feeding  at  the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  week.  During 
this  time  they  seem  to  be  simply  getting  into  good  con- 
dition to  put  on  flesh,  though  it  appears  that  some  fat  is 
being  deposited  internally.  Towards  the  end  of  that 
time  many  of  the  lambs  may  be  noticed  standing  leisurely 
in  the  sun  in  a  partially  stretched  posture.  This  pose  in 
the  lambs  is  a  delight  to  the  shepherd.  The  fattening 
process  seems  to  extend  from  the  internal  regions,  and  is 
first  in  evidence  at  the  tail.  It  then  passes  along  the  back 
over  the  shoulder  and  reaches  the  neck ;  from  this  line  it 
seems  to  extend  down  the  sides  and  over  the  breast  in 
front.  There  are  six  main  points  at  which  its  extension 
seems  most  in  evidence — at  the  tail,  middle  of  the  back, 
the  neck,  the  flank,  the  purse  and  the  breast. 

160.  Judging      Condition.        Judges    of    condition 
handle  these  different  points  and  seem  to  arrive  at  the 
same  conclusions  from  continued  practice  in  observing 


Two  photographs  of  the  same  sheep— the  upper  before  trimming  and  the 
lower  after  trimming— by  Thomas  Bradbourne,  shepherd  for  Altamont  flock, 
who  holds  the  sheep.  This  illustrates  the  necessity  of  careful  handling  of 
sheep  to  determine  the  form. 


Grand  champion  wether.  International  Exposition,  Chicago,  1903.  Ex- 
hibited and  owned  by  University  of  Wisconsin.  Fed  and  fitted  by  Frank 
Kleinheinz.  Shropshire  grade,  weight  210  Ibs. 


Photographs  of  sheep  teeth,  showing  changes  that  occur  in  the  order  of 
appearance  of  the  incisors.  The  photo  on  the  upper  left  hand  shows  a 
lamb's  rnouth  with  all  temporary  incisors.  The  upper  right  hand  photo- 
graph shows  mouth  of  a  sheep  about  one  year  old,  with  the  first  pair  of  per- 
manent incisors  and  the  temporary  incisors  back  of  them.  The  photo  in  the 
lower  right  hand  corner  shows  the  mouth  of  a  sheep  about  two  years  old, 
with  two  pairs  of  permanent  incisors  appearing.  The  photograph  in  the 
center  below  shows  the  mouth  of  a  three  year  old  sheep,  with  three  pairs  of 
permanent  incisors.  The  lower  right  hand  illustration  is  a  photograph  of  a 
sheep's  mouth  when  four  and  a  half  to  five  years  old.  The  incisors  are  all 
permanent,  worn  down  some  and  more  sloping  than  the  others. 


FOR   MUTTON  AND   WOOL  113 

the  development  of  any  one  of  them,  although  a  critical 
examination  will  reveal  that  sheep  sometimes  fatten  un- 
evenly and  may  be  good  in  one  or  more  of  these  points 
and  comparatively  deficient  in  others.  By  feeling  the  tail 
head  some  will  form  their  opinion  as  to  the  degree  to 
which  the  lamb  is  fat.  Others  are  satisfied  with  feeling 
the  back.  Many  after  feeling  the  tail,  grasp  the  neck 
and  base  their  opinion  on  the  fullness  of  that  part.  The 
flank  and  breast  are  often  used  for  further  assistance, 
and  some  butchers  estimate  condition  by  the  fullness  of 
the  purse.  At  any  of  these  points,  more  especially  the 
back,  the  covering  should  be  such  in  the  prime  lamb  as 
to  prevent  feeling  the  sharp  projection  of  backbone.  In 
a  lamb  that  is  completely  fattened  there  is  a  distinct 
trough  or  groove  running  from  the  tail  to  the  shoulders 
and  the  covering  of  flesh  should  extend  well  down  over 
the  sides,  without  softness  due  to  excessive  fat  or  oily 
tissue.  All  lambs  do  not  fatten  as  smoothly  or  as  uni- 
formly as  herein  indicated.  In  most  lambs,  however, 
the  worst  defect  is  bareness  of  the  loin  and  lightness  in 
the  hind  quarters.  With  these  parts  well  covered  and 
fully  developed,  a  rather  sharp  shoulder  and  peaked  bris- 
ket will  be  overlooked.  Not  only  should  the  flesh  be 
thick  over  the  valuable  cuts,  but  it  should  be  firm.  Very 
often  it  will  be  found  that  soft  rough  patches  will  be 
present  about  the  head  of  the  tail,  owing  to  the  deposit- 
ing of  too  much  soft  flesh  on  the  back,  which  may  slip 
from  there  on  the  over  ripe  lamb  and  gather  at  the  flank 
or  along  the  sides  in  long  soft  rolls. 

161.  The  Importance  of  Dressed  Weight.  In 
considering  this  .subject  still  further  from  the  butcher's 
point  of  view,  there  is  the  question  of  quality  which  ma- 
terially affects  the  percentage  of  the  dressed  meat  ob- 
tained. This  in  addition  to  being  largely  influenced  by 


114  JUDGING  SHEEP 

the  condition  of  the  sheep,  is  perhaps  most  influenced  by 
the  fineness  of  the  bone,  thickness  of  the  pelt  and  other 
features,  which  all  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  profit 
from  the  butcher's  standpoint.  In  this  connection  to  show 
how  important  it  is  to  have  the  dressed  weight  yield  a 
large  percentage  of  valuable  cuts,  it  will  be  interesting 
to  quote  some  results  obtained  from  an  experiment  at  the 
Iowa  Station  under  direction  of  Professor  Curtiss.  He 
found  in  a  lot  of  ten  pure  bred  Oxford  lambs  marketed 
by  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  that  the  leg  cuts  con- 
stituted 31.87  per  cent  of  the  whole  carcass  by  weight 
and  sold  for  42.63  per  cent  of  the  total  value.  The  leg, 
rib  and  loin  cuts  together  aggregated  73.74  per  cent  of 
the  total  weight  and  sold  for  92  per  cent  of  the  total. 
162.  Consideration  of  the  Consumer.  The  butcher 
and  the  consumer  are  very  similar  in  their  demands,  but 
there  are  a  few  points  that  are  of  peculiar  importance  to 
the  latter,  and  among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  charac- 
ter of  the  flesh.  A  clear  distinction  should  be  drawn  be- 
tween flesh  and  fat,  or,  as  it  may  be  otherwise  stated,  be- 
tween muscle  and  lean  meat  and  tallow.  The  ideal  sheep 
from  the  consumer's  standpoint  is  one  that  carries  a  large 
proportion  of  flesh  or  lean  meat  with  but  a  limited  quan- 
tity of  fat.  In  live  sheep  this  is  indicated  by  a  firm,  even 
covering  over  the  parts  of  the  body.  The  flesh  has  a 
firm  but  springy  touch  and  is  smooth  over  all  regions, 
especially  thick  where  it  has  the  highest  value.  The  con- 
sumer asserts  his  preference  for  another  feature  and  that 
is  a  marked  desire  for  lamb  in  contrast  to  matured  sheep, 
owing  to  the  desirability  of  small  cuts  and  the  supposi- 
tion that  lamb  is  more  tender  than  older  sheep. 

163.  The  Qualities  of  the  Fleece  In  estimating 
the  worth  of  a  sheep  or  judging  it,  not  only  is  it  fair  to 
consider  the  demands  of  the  feeder,  the  butcher  and  the 


FOR   MUTTON   AND  WOOL  115 

consumer,  but  with  these  we  must  include  the  qualities 
desired  by  the  wool  manufacturer.  Though  the  returns 
from  the  fleece  are  not  very  large,  yet  the  sheep  breeder 
must  consider  them  so  that  the  ultimate  profit  may  be 
as  great  as  possible.  To  arrive  at  a  correct  understand- 
ing in  regard  to  this,  the  examiner  must  follow  the  best 
method  of  examination  and  also  know  in  detail  the  mar- 
ket requirements  for  wool. 

164.  Examining     the     Fleece.        In  examining  and 
valuing  the  fleece  the  chief  points  to  consider  are  the 
quantity,   quality  and  the  condition.     In  grouping  "the 
qualities  under  these  three  divisions  we  can  include  the 
interests  of  those  directly  concerned  on  the  various  prod- 
ucts coming  from  sheep,  on  the  market.    The  best  method 
of  arriving  at  the  nature  of  a  fleece  is  to  open  it  first  just 
over  the  shoulder.    It  is  in  this  region  that  the  finest  and 
the  soundest  wool  of  the  fleece  is  found.     By  using  the 
hands  in  a  flat  position  instead  of  sticking  the  end  of  the 
fingers  into  the  wool  the  fleece  may  be  parted  in  a  more 
satisfactory  manner.    After  looking  at  the  wool  and  skin 
in  this  region,  the  thigh  should  be  the  next  place  of  ex- 
amination, for  here  grows  the  poorest  and  coarsest  wool 
of  the  whole  fleece.     Then  the  covering  of  the  wool  on 
the  belly  also  demands  notice,  for  very  often  sheep  are 
quite  poor  in  this  region,  making  the  wool  light  and  in- 
dicating a  lack  of  constitution.     By  examining  the  fleece 
in  these  three  parts  a  fair  estimate  may  be  made  of  its 
qualities. 

165.  Quantity  of   Fleece.       The  chief  factors  which 
determine  the  quantity  are  the  length,  density  and  even- 
ness of  both  of  these  over  all  parts. 

166.  Density.      The  density  of  the  fleece  means  the 
closeness  of  the  fibers.    Technically  it  means  the  number 
of  fibers  that  grow  on  a  square  inch.    Density  is  not  only 


116  JUDGING  SHEEP 

of  value  to  secure  a  heavy  fleece,  but  from  a  breeder's 
point  of  view  its  chief  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
is  more  protection  to  the  sheep  than  a  fleece  that  is  open. 
Not  only  is  a  sheep  with  a  loose  open  fleece  more  liable 
to  contract  a  cold  from  exposure  to  rain  or  wind,  but  it  is 
also  more  apt  to  yield  a  dirty  fleece,  as  the  loose  fleece 
catches  the  dirt  and  dust  and  pieces  of  hay  and  straw. 
From  the  shepherd's  point  of  view  the  denseness  of  the 
fleece  is  its  leading  feature,  for  it  will  be  found  that  those 
animals  with  dense  close  fleeces  are  less  subject  to  such 
diseases  as  catarrh,  running  at  the  nose  or  scouring. 
When  a  sheep  experiences  a  chill,  it  at  once  affects  the 
circulation  and  sends  the  blood  to  the  internal  organs,  and 
inflammation  or  scouring  results.  This  is  why  sheep  that 
have  open  fleeces  are  more  subject  to  such  diseases  than 
those  that  have  dense  fleeces.  Wool  is  one  of  the  best 
non-conductors  of  heat  that  we  have  and  when  it  is  on  a 
sheep  in  the  form  of  a  dense  fleece,  it  gives  them  the 
greatest  possible  protection  from  exposure.  Furthermore, 
if  the  fleece  is  not  dense,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the 
fiber  to  be  sound, — that  is,  free  from  weak  spots.  When 
a  sheep  has  been  badly  chilled  or  has  become  sick  in  any 
way  so  as  to  cause  the  pores  of  the  skin  to  contract,  a 
break  or  shrinkage  occurs  in  the  fiber  at  that  point.  The 
wool  on  a  sheep  grows  from  a  small  sac  in  the  skin  and 
it  passes  away  from  the  skin  through  a  small  opening 
which  may  be  easily  contracted  or  expanded,  according 
to  different  influences.  The  influences  are  various,  and 
for  that  reason  it  is  important  that  the  sheep  be  covered 
with  a  fleece  that  is  so  dense  as  not  to  be  affer.tecl  much 
by  external  conditions. 

167.  Length  of  Staple.  The  length  of  the  staple  is 
an  important  feature,  both  from  a  commercial  point  of 
view  and  from  the  shepherd's  standpoint.  Wools  are  gen- 


Lincoln  ewe,  a  winner  of  many  prizes  in  1897,  owned  by  John  T.  Gibson, 
Denfield,  Ontario,  Canada. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  LINCOLN  SHEEP 

"PHIS  BREED  which  originated  in  Linconshire  England,  vies  with  the  Cotswold 
for  the  position  of  being  considered  the  largest  of  the  long  wooled  breeds. 
The  form  is  very  squarely  built  and  when  mature  the  representatives  of  this  breed 
are  very  heavy.  The  face  is  pure  white,  somewhat  long  and  surmounted  by  a  tuft 
of  wool.  The  body  is  exceedingly  full  in  its  development  and  marked  specially  by 
a  very  wide,  level  and  deep  fleshed  back,  while  the  hind  quarters  are  usually 
well  developed,  being  very  square  in  form.  The  wool  is  long  in  fiber,  very  strong, 
frequently  inclined  to  be  coarse  because  of  this,  but  it  is  particularly  lustrous  and 
parts  easily  in  flakes.  In  yield  of  mutton  and  wool  this  breed  occupies  a  foremost 
position. 


FOR   MUTTON   AND   WOOL  117 

erally  known  as  short-stapled  or  the  carding  wools,  which 
are  used  for  woolen  clothes,  or  long-stapled  or  combing 
wools,  which  are  used  for  worsted  clothes.  The  long  sta- 
pled wools  include  the  Lincoln,  Leicester,  Cotswold, 
Romney  Marsh  and  Black  Face  or  Highland.  The  short- 
stapled  include  all  the  Downs  (Southdown,  Hampshire, 
Suffolk,  Shropshire,  Oxford), — and  the  Cheviot  and 
Welsh.  The  manufacturer  of  woolens  desires  a  short- 
stapled  wool,  for  such  a  wool  has  better  felting  qualities 
and  usually  more  serrations  or  spirals  than  the  long 
wools.  In  manufacturing  woolens  into  yarns  the  fibers 
are  transversely  disposed  to  the  axis  or  length  of  the 
thread.  In  yarns  of  this  nature  this  feature 
is  termed  "pile."  The  points  projecting  from 
the  center  should  be  numerous,  so  that  in  felt- 
ing the  fabric  unites  and  also  when  the  cloth 
comes  to  be  finished  it  will  appear  on  top  like  short 
fur  (Royal  Agricultural  Society  Transactions,  Vol.  II, 
Second  Series).  On  the  other  hand,  in  worsted  goods, 
the  object  is  to  stretch  the  fibers  and  lay  them  parallel 
with  each  other,  and  this  produces  a  yarn,  even,  strong, 
and  composed  of  as  fine  fibers  as  possible.  In  this  process 
ojf  manufacture,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  length  and 
strength  of  a  fiber  includes  its  most  valuable  character- 
istics. 

168.  Classification  of  Wool.  There  is  another  mar- 
ket classification  which  is  more  definite  than  this,  but  is 
very  similar  in  nature.  The  wools  according  to  their 
length  and  strength  in  the  Chicago  market  are  divided 
into  clothing,  which  is  short,  being  about  two  inches,  or 
it  is  weak ;  then  there  is  the  delaine  class,  which  is  a  fine 
wool  from  two  to  three  inches  long  in  fiber.  The  other 
class  is  a  combing,  which  is  a  strong  wool  over  three 
inches  long.  This  classification,  it  will  be  seen,  depends 
altogether  on  the  length  and  strength  of  the  wool.  Con- 
sidering first,  clothing  wool,  which  is  used  for  making: 


118  JUDGING  SHEEP 

flannels  and  certain  kinds  of  rough  cloth,  shortness  in 
the  fiber  is  its  leading:  characteristic.  If  the  fiber  of  a 
fleece,  however,  is  four  inches  long,  it  would,  on  its 
length,  be  classified  as  combing  wool,  but  if  that  fiber  has 
a  weak  spot  in  it  where  it  readily  breaks  it  passes  from 
the  combing  class  into  the  clothing  class  and  drops  two 
or  more  cents  on  the  pound  in  price.  The  delaine  wools 
are  fine  wools  that  are  not  longer  than  three  inches.  They 
are  used  for  making  the  finest  kinds  of  cloth.  The  comb- 
ing wool  must  in  the  first  place  be  strong  to  stand  the 
process  of  combing,  and  with  that  the  greatest  length  is 
desired.  In  further  reference  to  the  quality  of  the  wool, 
in  examining  a  fleece,  it  should  be  noticed  that  the  length 
and  the  density  are  even  over  all  parts.  Considering:  first 
the  length,  the  fleece  should  be  examined  at  the  brisket, 
on  top  of  the  back,  along  the  side  on  the  thigh  and  on 
the  belly.  As  a  rule  sheep  fitted  for  show  are  trimmed  in 
such  a  way  that  the  wool  in  front  of  the  brisket  is  much 
longer  than  that  on  top  of  the  back,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  that  on  the  sides.  In  an  untrimmed  sheep,  on 
which  the  wool  has  grown  naturally,  it  will  be  found  that 
there  is  a  natural  variation  in  the  length  of  the  fiber  on 
different  parts  of  the  body.  The  wool  on  the  brisket  will 
invariably  be  found  to  be  longer  than  that  on  the  top  or 
in  most  other  parts.  The  density  of  the  fleece  may  be 
determined  by  the  feel  of  it  under  the  hand.  If  the  fleece 
feels  firm  and  it  seems  to  be  compact,  it  is  likely  dense. 

169.  Quality  of  Fleece.  As  in  most  other  instances 
it  is  rare  to  find  quality  and  quantity  associated.  As  a 
general  rule  it  will  be  found  that  the  short  wooled  sheep 
have  the  finest  quality  of  wool.  In  judging  of  the  qual- 
ity, it  should  be  noted  again  that  the  finest  wool  occurs 
just  over  the  heart  and  on  the  belly,  while  the  coarsest 
grows  on  the  thigh. 


Pair  of  piii;e  winning  Cotswold  ewes  owned  by  Messrs.  George  Harding  & 
Son,  Waukesha,  Wisconsin,  showing  the  desirable  qualities  of  this  breed  in 
long  forelocks,  upstanding  and  full  fronts,  long,  level  backs  and  heavy  fleeces 
of  wool. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTSWOLD  SHEEP 

1*HIS  BREED  which  is  native  to  the  Cotswold  hills  iin  Gloucestershire,  England, 
Is  one  of  very  ancient  origin  and  is  one  of  those  breeds  which  show  a  high  order 
ot  style  and  finish  and  uniformity,  due  to  the  long  continued  breeding  for  a  type. 
The  form  is  remarkably  square,  upstanding  and  stylish,  the  latter  being  contrib- 
uted to  in  no  small  degree  by  a  beautiful  tuft  of  wool  growing  from  the  forehead 
and  falling  luxuriantly  over  the  face.  The  head  is  somewhat  long  in  the  face  and 
may  be  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray.  The  forelock  is  full  and  long,  the  ear 
small,  the  neck  of  sufficient  length  to  uphold  the  head  with  style.  The  character- 
istic form  of  the  body  is  long,  level  and  wide  with  a  strong  back.  The  hind  quar- 
ter comes  up  square  and  should  have  sufficient  fullness  below.  The  fleece  owing 
to  its  length  is  usually  somewhat  open  but  it  possesses  a  long,  strong  fiber  that 
yields  heavy.  The  fleece  most  desired,  while  wavy,  parts  into  locks  show.'ncsr  a  clear 
pink  skin  free  from  dark  spots.  The  popularity  of  the  breed  lies  chie'f^ 
large  yield  of  wool  and  mutton,  and  these  features  should  be  leading  character- 
istics yet  they  should  also  be  associated  with  quality  in  all  the  essentials.  See 
official  scale"of  points,  page  136. 


Border  Leicester  ram,  FAVORITK.  winner  first  prize  at  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society,  Dumfries,  Scotland,  1895.  Bred  by 'and  property  of 
Andrew  Smith,  Longniddry,  Hadington,  Scotland. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   LEICESTER   SHEEP 

l^HIS  BREED  which  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  established  originator,  in  Leicester- 
shire, England.  The  first  improver,  Robert  Bakewell,  1726-1795.  sought  chiefly 
to  increase  the  early  maturity  of  this  breed  and  lessen  the  size  of  the  bone  and  in- 
crease the  weight  of  flesh.  The  characteristics  secured  at  that  early  time  are  main- 
tained in  the  modern  representative.  The  face  is  bare  and  pure  white,  body,  square, 
fore  quarters  especially  full  with  the  hind  quarters  peculiarly  rounded  on  top. 
There  are  usually  many  evidences  of  quality  as  seen  in  the  fine  bone  and  the  fur- 
ther fact  that  the  fiberof  the  fleece  is  usually  remarkably  fine  considering  its  length. 
The  marked  aptitude  of  the  representatives  of  this  breed  to  fatten  results  in  remark- 
able backs  but  frequently  the  same  aptitude  produces  a  soft  and  uneven  covering. 
The  Border  Leicester,  originating  from  an  infusion  of  Cheviot  blood,  is  generally 
stronger  in  bone  and  more  vigorous  than  the  English  type.  The  wool  of  the  fleece 
s  lustrous,  five  or  six  inches  long  and  very  soft  though  frequently  too  open  and 
sometimes  absent  on  the  belly. 


FOR   MUTTON   AND   WOOL  119 

170.  Softness.  By  pressing  the  fleece  with  the  hand 
the  softness  of  it  can  readily  be  approximated.  This 
feature  is  opposed  to  harshness.  The  softness  of  the  fleece 
not  only  depends  greatly  on  the  management,  but  also  on 
the  nature  of  the  food  and  the  soil.  In  reference  to  the 
foods,  those  that  are  rich  in  sulphur  have  been  observed 
to  have  the  most  influence  on  the  softness  of  the  wool. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  that  in  one  hundred  pounds  of 
wool  there  is  at  least  five  pounds  of  sulphur,  and  it  seems 
that  the  abundance  of  this  in  the  food,  has  an  effect  on 
this  feature  of  softness  in  the  fleece.  It  is  well  known 
that  soil  has  a  strong  influence  on  the  properties  of  wool, 
especially  in  regard  to  its  softness.  Clay  soils  are  con- 
sidered to  produce  the  softest  wool,  of  the  best  lustre  and 
next  to  these  ranks  sandy  soils,  and  lastly,  those  of  the 
nature  of  limestone.  Chalky  soils  have  been  noted  for 
the  deterioration  they  produce  in  the  softness  of  the  wool. 
Harshness  of  the  fleece  is  generally  due  to  the  absence  of 
yolk  which  has  resulted  from  ill  health  on  the  part  of  the 
sheep  or  from  exposure.  Considering  the  nature  of  the 
fiber  of  wool,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  anything,  such 
as  ill  health  or  exposure  which  effects  the  secretion  of 
yolk  is  certain  to  make  the  wool  harsh.  A  fiber  of  wool 
is  covered  with  a  series  of  scales  which  overlap  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  to  the  shingles  on  a  roof.  When  the  secre- 
tion of  yolk  is  abundant,  these  scales  fit  it  closely  to  the 
fiber,  but  when  the  secretion  of  yolk  is  stopped  from  any 
injurious  cause,  the  scales  stand  out  from  the  fiber  very 
similar  to  warped  shingles  on  a  roof.  The  result  of  this 
is  that  the  fibers  lock  and  when  you  feel  the  fleece  that 
has  fibers  of  this  nature  they  seem  to  grate  each  other 
very  similarly  to  file  shavings.  The  wool  is  harsh  and 
dry  and  when  pressed  it  gives  that  grating  feeling  which 


120  JUDGING   SHEEP 

is  also  characteristic  of  an  unhealthy  fleece.     It  is  this 
that  produces  what  is  generally  known  as  a  cotted  fleece. 

171.  Commercial     Grades.       According  to  the  fine- 
ness of  fiber,  or,  in  other  words,  the  size  of  it,  wool  is  ar- 
ranged in  three  grades, — fine,  medium  and  coarse.    These 
terms  are  applied  to  all  the  classes  of  wool, — the  cloth- 
ing, delaine  and  combing  that  go  into  the  market.     For 
instance,  there  is  fine,  medium  and  coarse  clothing ;  there 
is  fine  delaine  and  medium  delaine,  and  there  are  all 
three  grades  of  combing  wools.     These  terms  relating  to 
the  grades  are  used  to  designate  certain  size  of  fiber.     No 
exact  measurement  limits  the  arrangement  of  it,  but  yet 
they  are  so  defined  that  one  can  readily  tell  them  after 
becoming  acquainted  with  them  in  practice. 

172.  Crimp.      All  wool  is  more  or  less  crimped,  pos- 
sessing what  are  sometimes  called  spirals.    The  most  im- 
portant point  in  regard  to  the  crimp  is  that  it  should  be 
regular  and  the  folds  should  not  be  thrown  on  each  other. 
Regularity  in  the  crimp  indicates  that  the  fiber  is  sound 
from  end  to  end,  but  if  in  some  places  the  crimp  is  short 
and  close,  and  in  others  long  and  wavy,  it  usually  indi- 
cates that  where  this  difference  occurs,  there  is  an  un- 
sound spot  in  the  fiber.     It  shows  that  the  growth  has 
been  irregular  and  there  is  a  close  relation  between  the 
fineness  of  the  fiber  and  the  nature  of  the  crimp.     When 
the  crimp  is  fine  and  close  almost  invariably  the  fiber  will 
be  found  to  be  of  fine  quality.   In  all  coarse  wool  it  should 
be  noted  that  the  crimp  is  open  and  wavy.     In  opening  a 
fleece  and  looking  at  it,   the   crimp   should   always1  be 
noted,  for  from  it  an  estimate  may  be  made,  both  as  to 
the  soundness  and  the  fineness  of  it. 

173.  Soundness.        The  soundness  of  the  fiber  is  of 
.much  importance  in  the  process  of  manufacturing  wool- 
ens.   The  fleece  of  unsound  fibers  will  bring  four  or  five 


southdown  ram  BANNER  BEARER,  formerly  stock  sire  of  Turlington  Stock 
Farm,  Turlington,  Nebraska,  now  owned  by  W,  E.  Spicer. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SOUTHDOWN  SHEEP 

1*HIS  BREED,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  purest,  originated  on  the  Downs  of 
Sussex  in  England  and  they  represent  a  uniformity  of  type  for  mutton  pur- 
poses which  may  be  accepted  as  a  model  of  mutton  form.  The  type  shown  by  this 
breed  is  very  symmetrical,  compact  and  close  to  the  ground  and  there  is  a  marked 
refinement  in  every  feature;  the  general  structure  being  of  fine  quality  whileevery 
part  strongly  reflects  the  same  characteristic.  The  head  is  moderate  In  size,  short 
and  clearly  defined  in  its  lineaments.  The  forehead  should  be  covered  with  wool  and 
the  cheeks  also  but  this  usually  does  not  join  forward  of  the  eye.  There  is  a  com- 
plete absence  of  horns,  with  small  pointed  ears,  the  face  is  some  shade  of  brown  or 
gray  tint  and  the  same  markings  should  prevail  on  the  legs.  The  neck  is  very  short 
and  straight,  the  breast  broad  and  full,  the  back  is  straight,  well  covered  and 
tightly  knit,  while  the  loin  is  wide,  straight  and  smooth.  The  general  form  of  the 
body  shows  much  depth  and  width  with  a  trimness  characteristic  of  every  region. 
The  hips  while  markedly  wide  are  not  prominent,  the  hind  quarter  fills  out  square 
and  the  twist  and  thigh  are  low  and  full.  The  fleece  is  characterized  more  by  its 
fineness  and  density  rather  than  the  weight  of  the  wool  which  it  yields  as  it  is  gen- 
erally medium  in  length  and  comparatively  free  from  yolk.  A  marked  uniformity 
in  the  quality  cf  the  wool  should  be  in  evidence;  that  over  the  shoulder  and  that 
which  covers  the  thigh  and  other  parts  being  very  even  in  quality.  The  best  types 
of  this  breed  may  be  accepted  as  a  model  form  for  the  block.  See  official  scale  of 
points,  jmge  131. 


Shropshire  ram.  RINGLEADER,  a  frequent  prize  winner  and  stock  ram  at 
the  head  of  the  Altamont  flock,  owned  by  Dr.  G.  Howard  Davidson,  Mill- 
brook,  N.  Y. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE    SHROPSHIRE   SHEEP 

BREED  having  its  home  in  the  Downs  of  England  is  very  symmetrical  and 
stylish  in  form.  The  head  should'show  refinement  in*every  feature  with  mod- 
erate length.  A  characteristic  attribute  is  for  it  to  be  closely  covered  with  wool, 
the  cap  between  the  ears  being  dense  running  to  the  bridge  of  the  nose  and  joining 
that  which  covers  the  cheek  and  lower  part  of  the  head.  The  ears  should  be  far 
apart,  pointed  and  moderate  in  thickness  and  preferably  covered  to  the  tip  with 
fine  curly  wool.  There  should  not  be  the  least  evidence  of  horns  as  the  places 
where  these  sometimes  appear  should  be  covered  with  wool.  The  neck  should  be 
nicely  attached  and  full  and  of  sufficient  length  to  carry  the  head  with  peculiar 
style.  The  body  to  possess  this  characteristic  smoothness  and  symmetry  must  be 
somewhat  circular  and  round  ribbed.  The  back  should  be  straight,  strong  and  knit 
so  that  the  handling  of  this  part  shows  it  to  be  smooth  and  evenly  covered.  The 
loin  must  be  wide  and  hips  not  prominent  and  the  quarters  lengthy  and  deep,  the 
width  from  the  loin  and  hips  should  be  carried  out  to  the  tail  head  and  the  fullness 
characteristic  of  this  par  i  should  be  maintained  on  the  outside  of  the  thigh  and  on 
the  inside  as  well,  making  the  twist  not  only  deep  but  plump  with  flesh.  The  fleece 
should  be  strong  and  fine  in  fiber  with  all  the  density  possible.  From  the  bridge  of 
the  nose  to  the  fetlock  as  well  as  along  the  belly,  a  dense  covering  of  wool  is  desir- 
able. In  opening  the  fleece  the  fibers,  which  are  generally  about  three  inches  long, 
should  part  readily,  show  clear  white  in  strong  contrast  to  the  pink  skin.  About 
the  ears  or  top  of  the  head  there  should  be  no  patches  of  black  fiber  nor  should 
these  appear  distributed  anywhere  in  the  fleece.  The  characteristic  markings  for 
the  face  and  legs  are  a  rich  dark  brown  in  color.  The  best  type  of  this  breed  shows 
an  unusual  combination  of  quality  and  quantity  of  both  wool  and  mutton.  See 
official  scale  of  points,  page  133. 


FOR  MUTTON   AND  WOOL  121 

cents  less  than  one  that  is  strong  throughout.  To  test 
the  soundness  of  a  fiber  in  addition  to  knowing  it  by  the 
character  of  the  crimp,  a  small  lock  of  wool  is  taken  be- 
tween the  fingers  and  stretched  evenly  and  gently  until 
the  unsoundness  or  the  strength  becomes  apparent.  The 
wool  may  break  at  the  bottom,  having  what  is  called 
"weak  bottoms,"  or  it  may  have  "weak  middles"  or  "weak 
tops,"  according  to  the  location  of  the  unsoundness. 
Evenness  of  all  the  desirable  characteristics  should  exist 
over  all  parts  of  the  fleece.  The  softness  should  be  ap- 
parent over  all  regions  and  fineness  also,  and  the  crimp 
should  in  addition  appear  uniform  throughout  the  fiber. 

174.  Condition.       The  condition  of  the  fleece  refers 
more  to  its  purity,  lustre,  brightness  and  the  quantity  and 
character  of  the  yolk.     The  condition  of  a  fleece  results 
mostly  from  correct  breeding  and  proper  management. 

175.  Purity.       Purity  refers  to  the  freedom  of  the 
fleece  from  dead  fibers  and  foreign  matter.  In  fleeces  that 
are  grown  on  sheep  that  are  exposed  to  conditions  un- 
favorable to  thrift,  there  is  a  natural  tendency  for  the 
fleece  to  revert  to  its  original  state ;  that  is,  fibers  of  hair 
begin  to  appear  in  it  and  these  take  the  place  of  the  wool. 
Very  often  in  fleeces  grown  by  sheep  that  have  been  ex- 
posed there  will  be  found  a  great  many  dead  fibers  which 
are  technically  spoken  of  as  "kemp."     These  dead  fibers 
are   very   injurious  to  the   fleece   from  the  commercial 
standpoint,  because  they  do  not  absorb  dyes,  and  in  any 
cloth  that  is  made  from  such  wool  these  dead  fibers  will 
retain  the  white  and  hard  appearance  that  they  had  in 
the  fleece. 

176.  Domestic    Wool.        Based  on  the  condition  oi 
the  fleece  the  market  makes  a  division  of  four  kinds. 
These  are  what  is  known  as  domestic  wool,   territory 
wool,  blanket  wool  and  carpet  wool.    Domestic  wools  are 


122  JUDGING  SHEEP 

clean  and  bright.  Wool  of  this  kind  comes  from  fleeces 
that  are  grown  under  what  might  be  termed  domesticated 
conditions,  that  is, — sheep  are  given  shelter,  fed  well  and 
otherwise  have  good  management.  This  results  in  a 
clean,  bright  wool  which  the  market  classifies  as  domes- 
tic wool. 

177.  Territory  Wool.        In  contrast  to  this  is  the  ter- 
ritory wool.     This  wool  is  called  territory  wool  simply 
because  it  is  dirty  or  it  is  discolored.     It  is  wool  that 
comes  from  sheep  managed  and  cared  for  in  a  way  very 
similar  to  that  which  is  common  in  the  territories.     The 
sheep  have  run  out  the  year  round;  the  fleece  has  be- 
come full  of  sand,  straw,  chaff  and  similar  substances, 
and  this  has  filled  the  fleece  with  foreign  material. 

178.  Blanket     Wool.        The  poorest  kinds  of  wool 
that  go  to  the  market  are  known  as  carpet  wool  and 
blanket  wool.     The  worst  feature  connected  with  this 
kind  of  wool  is  the  presence  of  kemp  or  the  dead  fibers 
previously  mentioned.     On  account  of  these  not  freely 
absorbing  the  dyes,  this  wool  has  to  be  manufactured 
into  carpets  and  blankets.    When  the  nature  of  the  fleece 
of  the  original  sheep  is  understood  so  that  the  improve- 
ment that  has  been  made  through  breeding  for  many 
years  becomes  apparent,  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  when 
sheep  are  neglected  the  tendency  is  for  their  fleece  to  re- 
vert to  the  original   condition.      In   this   condition   the 
fleece  was  made  up  of  an  external  covering  of  hairs  and 
beneath  it  an  undergrowth  of  very  finely  fibered  wool. 
Domestication  by  man  has  completely  removed  the  hair 
and  gives  us  a  fine  fleece  of  wool  which  exists  on  well 
bred  sheep  today.     Neglect  on  the  part  of  the  breeder 
will  surely  result  in  the  sheep  reverting  to  the  kind  of 
fleece  that  it  at  one  time  possessed. 


Imported  Hampshire  ram,  BARTON'S  BEST  699.  Weight,  313  Ibs;  fleece  12^ 
Ibs.,  April  15, 1896.  At  head  of  the  Prairie  Castle  flock.  Dropped  February 
10, 1893.  Owned  by  J.  H.  Taft  Estate,  Mendon,  Mich. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HAMPSHIRE   SHEEP 

1*HIS  BREED,  finding  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  England  is  strong 
framed  with  those  features  which  denote  constitution,  strikingly  shown.  The 
head  is  strong  and  somewhat  large  with  prominent  nose  and  ear  inclined  to  bo 
thick  and  large  yet  there  should  not  be  any  undue  coarseness  in  these  parts.  The 
neck  should  be  strong  and  deep  from  head  to  shoulder,  the  chest  very  deep  and 
wide.  The  back  strong  with  width  and  proper  covering.  The  hind  quarter  should 
be  cnaracterized  by  fullness  both  before  and  below.  In  general  the  frame  is  strong, 
lengthy  and  close  to  the  ground  with  the  other  attributes  which  indicate  vigor. 
The  wool  of  the  fleece  is  somewhat  short,  dense  and  strong  in  fiber.  Ruggedncss 
and  weight  of  form  are  desirable  yet  these  should  be  secured  if  possible  without 
extreme  coarseness  of  form  or  fleece.  The  early  development  of  the  lambs  of  this 
breed  is  a  leading  characteristic  and  should  be  recognized,  consequently  a  heavy 
weight  at  an  early  age  but  not  at  the  expense  of  quality  and  breed  type  is  very 
desirable.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  133. 


An  Oxford  Down  ram,  winner  oi  numerous  state  fair  prizes,  cvrned  by 
George  McKerrow,  Sussex,  Wisconsin. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  OXFORD  DOWN   SHEEP 

*pHIS  BREED  originated  in  the  county  of  Oxford,  England,  and  the  type  was 
evolved  by  the  use  of  the  Cotswold  and  Hampshire.  The  origin  of  the  type  is 
shown  somewhat  in  the  modern  representatives  for  the  scale,  substance  and  back 
which  they  possess  reflect  the  qualities  of  the  long  wool  line,  while  the  dark  face, 
fleece  characteristics  and  quality  of  structure  are  attributable  to  the  Down  ancestry. 
The  face  and  markings  are  either  gray  or  brown.  The^head  of  the  Oxford  c'/ffers 
somewhat  from  the  Shropshire  in  being  longer  and  not  so  densely  wooled  past  the 
eye,  while  the  ear  is  slightly  larger  and  longer.  The  form  is  square  in  general 
appearance,  wider  than  in  that  of  the  other  Down  breeds  and  the  hind  quarter 
square  on  top  and  below  carrying  flesh  close  to  the  hocks.  The  fleece  is  heavy, 
moderately  open  and  the  fiber  is  long  and  strong.  When  mature  they  are  one  of 
the  heaviest  of  the  Down  breeds  being  large  in  size  and  strong  in  frame.  See  official 
scale  of  points,  page  135. 


FOR   MUTTON  AND  WOOL 


123 


179.  Lustre.      This  refers  to  the  glistening  appear- 
ance of  the  fiber  when  held  to  the  light.     This  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  amount  of  yolk,  and  it  is  also  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  brightness  of  the  fiber.     Although  yolk  in 
a  fleece  may  add  to  the  lustre  of  the  fiber,  yet  all  lustrous 
wools  have  this  characteristic  independent  of  the  amount 
of  yolk  that  is  present.    The  chief  advantage  from  a  com- 
mercial standpoint  that  attaches  itself  to  lustrous  wools 
is  that  they  more  readily  take  delicate  dyes.     Wools  in 
the  market  are  known  as  lustrous  or  dull,  according  to 
the  appearance  of  the  fiber.     The  lustrous  fiber  has  the 
appearance  of  having  been  varnished,  while  a  dull  one 
does  not  show  the  least  tendency  to  glisten  when  held 
in  the  light. 

180.  Brightness.      Brightness  is  quite  distinct  from 
lustre,  as  it  refers  altogether  to  the  color  of  the  wool.   In 
the  market  wools  are  said  to  be  bright  or  dark  as  they 
vary  in  this  characteristic.     The  bright  wool  is  one  that 
has  a  clear  white  color,  while  the  dark  wool  is  one  that 
has  become  discolored  from  the  soil  on  which  the  sheep 
has  ranged,  or  some  similar  source.    Brightness  is  always 
characteristic  of  domestic  wool   and  discoloration  is  a 
feature  of  all  territory  wools. 

181.  Yolk.       This  is  the  grease  or  oil  that  is  naturally 
secreted  by  the  skin.    As  before  indicated  the  yolk  in  the 
fleece  is  an  indication  of  the  healthiness  of  the  sheep. 
The  yolk   is   secreted   in  the  skin,   but  it  passes   down 
through  the  fiber  and  finds  an  outlet  at  the  end  of  the 
fiber.     If  you  will  notice  sheep  on  certain  days  when  the 
weather  is  close  and  the  sheep  are  likely  sweating,  the 
yolk  seems  to  accumulate  on  the  end  of  the  fiber,  and  if 
you  were  to  run  your  hand  over  the  fleece  at  that  time 
you  would  find  it  became  quite  oily.    The  yolk  apparently 
comes  out  at  the  end  of  the  fibers  and  works  back  into  the 


124  JUDGING  SHEEP 

fleece.  In  some  flocks  the  quantity  of  yolk  has  been  in- 
creased and  encouraged  by  selection  in  breeding,  so  that 
heavy  fleeces  might  be  obtained.  The  ordinary  fleece  in 
which  yolk  is  abundant  in  proper  quantity  will  lose  nearly 
une-third  through  washing  it  in  hot  water.  This  grease 
is  of  no  value  to  the  manufacturer  and  it  represents  a  di- 
rect loss  to  him  when  it  is  in  the  fleece  in  very  large  quan- 
tities. The  feeding  and  the  management  undoubtedly 
influence  the  amount  of  yolk.  Feeding  sheep  foods  that 
are  rich  in  oils  seems  to  further  the  secretion  of  grease 
and  especially  in  feeding  with  such  rations  as  are  gen- 
erally given  to  fattening  sheep,  the  quantity  of  yolk  seems 
to  increase.  In  fattening  lambs  at  the  Wisconsin  Station 
it  was  found  that  the  lambs  which  received  grain  from 
birth  invariably  sheared  heavier  fleeces  than  those  that 
had  grain  only  during  the  latter  three  months  of  fatten- 
ing. By  washing  samples  from  the  fleece  of  these  sheep 
it  was  determined  that  the  increased  weight  of  the  fleece 
was  almost  altogether  due  to  the  increased  amount  of 
yolk  which  the  grain-fed  lambs  secreted.  The  presence 
of  yolk  in  proper  quantities  is  of  chief  importance,  be- 
cause the  fleece  becomes  -soft  through  it,  and  is  made 
more  compact,  thereby  keeping  bright  and  clean  in  con- 
dition. Furthermore,  it  is  a  safe  index  of  the  thriftiness 
in  the  sheep,  though  if  present  in  excessive  quantities  and 
accumulated  in  flakes  it  indicates  undue  pampering  or 
unthriftiness  due  to  overfeeding. 


Cheviot  ram,  SANDY  WALKER;  winner  of  first  prize  at  Edinburgh,  Morpeth, 
and  the  H.  and  A.  S.  Show,  Dumfries,  1895.  Bred  by  and  property  of  John 
Elliott,  Hindhope,  Jedburgh,  Scotland. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  CHEVIOT  SHEEP 

|*HIS  BKEED.  a  native  of  the  Cheviot  mountains  and  the  most  common  sheep  of 
Scotch  borders  has  been  known  on  the  hills  of  Scotland  for  more  than  200  years. 
To  thrive  under  the  conditions  of  their  nativity  they  must  naturally  possess 
unusual  activity  with  strong  constitutions.  The  modern  type  exemplifies  this  fact 
as  it  is  that  of  a  sheep  blocky  in  body  and  deep,  with  short  legs.  The  face  is  bare 
of  wool  from  the  ears  forward  without  any  appearance  of  horns  and  pure  white,  as 
on  all  other  regions  of  the  body  excepting  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  nostrils 
and  the  hoofs  which  should  be  black.  Being  hardy,  active  and  prolific  they  have 
a  pertness  in  look,  and  activity  in  movement  which  is  thoroughly  characteristic  of 
the  brecu.  The  manner  of  the  sheep  is  characterized  by  alertness  added  to  further 
by  a  keen  face,  bright  eye  and  active,  fine  ears.  The  chest  is  deep  with  the  floor  of 
it  close  to  the  ground,  the  girth  full,  the  back  rather  short  but  strong,  with  a  deep 
rib,  the  hind  quarter  is  low  set  but  well  developed  from  the  mutton  standpoint. 
The  fleece  should  bo  dense  and  fine  in  texture.  The  breeders  are  particularly  care- 
ful that  the  quality  of  the  fleece  should  be  even  throughout  and  free  from  kernp  or 
dead  hairs  and  especially  fill  the  hand  well.  As  constitution  is  eminently  desirable 
In  these  sheep  the  evidences  of  this  should  be  strikingly  shown  in  type  s.nd  tern 
perameut.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  139. 


ix)rset  ram  lamb  owned  <«nd  bred  by  Tranquility  Stock  Farms,  Alu, 
muchy,  N.  J. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DORSET  SHEEP 

^SRIGINALLY  a  mountain  breed  of   Dorsetshire  and   Summersetshire  of  the 
south  of  England,  this  breed  has  been  modified  considerably  in  type  during 
late  years  and  the  modern  representative  now  shows  a  form  that  is  long,  round- 
bodied  and  yet  compactly  built. 

Standard  of  excellence  and  scale  of  points  of  the  Dorset  sheep,  adopted  by  the 
Continental  Dorset  Association. —  Head  neat,  face  white,  nostrils  large,  well  covered 
on  crown  and  around  jaws  with  wool,  5;  horns,  small  and  gracefully  curving  for- 
ward, rather  close  to  jaws,  5;  .eyes,  prominent,  bright,  2;  ears,  moderately  large, 
covered  with  short  white  hair,  2;  neck,  symmetrical,  strongly  set  on  shoulders, 
gradually  tapering  to  junction  of  head,  5;  shoulders,  broad  and  full,  joining  neck 
forward,  and  chine  backward  with  uo  depression  at  either  point  (important),  13; 
brisket,  wide  and  well  forward,  chest  full  and  deep,  8}  fore  flank,  quite  full,  showing 
no  depression  behind  shoulder,  10;  back  and  loin,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  ribs 
should  spring  with  a  fine  circular  a~~h,  10;  quarters,  wide  and  full  with  mutton 
extending  down  to  hock,  6;  belly,  straight  on  underlined;  fleece,  medium  grade, 
01  even  quality,  and  presenting  a  smooth  surface,  well  covered  on  belly  and  legs.  12 ; 
general  conformation  of  the  mutton  type,  body  moderately  lengthy,  short  legs 
placed  squarely  under  body,  appearance  attractive,  skin  pink  colored.  15. 


FOR  MUTTON  AND  WOOL  125 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  FINK  WOOLED  SHEEP. 

£& 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Form,  level,  deep,  stylish,  round  rather  than  square 8 

Quality,  clean,  fine  bone;  silky  hair;  fine  skin 6 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Muzzle,  fine;  broad,  wrinkly  nose;  pure  white 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

Face,  wrinkly,  covered  with  soft,  velvety  coat 

Forehead,  broad,  full , 

Ears,  soft,  thick,  velvety 

Neck,  short,  muscular,  well  set  on  shoulders r 

FORE  QUARTERS ; 

Shoulder,  strong,  being  deep  and  broad 4 

Brisket,  projecting  forward,  breast  wide i 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart ;  shank  smooth  and  fine.  2 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  full,  indicating  constitution 10 

Back,  level,  long;  round  ribbed 4 

Loin,  wide,  level 4 

Flank,  low,  making  underline  straight 2 

HIND  QUARTERS : 

Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth 2 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide 4 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong  ;  shank  smooth,  fine 2 

WOOL : 

Kind  —  Domestic,  clean  and  bright. 
Territory,  dirty  or  discolored. 

B?anket }  Hairy  or  havinS  dead  fi°ers. 
Class — Clothing,   fiber  under    two  inches  in   length  or 

unsound. 

Delaine,  fiber  two  or  three  inches  in  length. 
Combing,  fiber  over  three  inches  in  length  and 
sound. 

Grade — Fine,  medium  or  coarse. 
Quantity — Long,   dense,  even  covering,  especially  over 

crown,  cheek,  armpit,  hind  legs  and  belly 15 

Quality — Fine  fiber,  crimp  close,  regular;  even  quality 

including  tops  of  folds 15 

Condition — Bright,  lustrous,  sound,  pure,  soft,  even  distri- 
bution of  yolk,  with  even  surface  to  fleece 15 

Total  .  .  100 


126  JUDGING   SHEEP 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  MUTTON   SHEEP — FOR  WETHER.  «*>  £ 

<D   CJ 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Weight,  score  according  to  age .       8 

Form,  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low  set,  stylish. 10 

Quality,  clean  bone,  silky  hair,  fine  skin,  light  in  offal, 

yielding  large  percentage  of  meat 10 

Condition,  deep  even  covering  of  firm  flesh  especially  in 
region  of  valuable  cuts.  Points  indicating  condition  or 
ripeness  are  thick  dock,  back  thickly  covered  with  flesh, 
thick  neck,  full  purse,  full  low  flank,  plump  breast 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 


Muzzle,  fine,  mouth  large,  lips  thin,  nostrils  large. 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

Face,  short,  clean  cut  features 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  fine,  erect 

Neck,   thick,  short,  throat  free  from  folds 


FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder  Vein,  full  ..................................... 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth.  .  . 
Brisket,  projecting  forward,  breast  wide  .................       i 

Legs,   straight,  short,  wide  apart,  strong;    fore  arm  full, 
shank  smooth  and  fine  ................................       i 

BODY: 

Chest,  wide,  deep,  full,  indicating  constitution  ...........       8 

Back,   broad,   straight,    long,  wide,    thickly  fleshed,   ribs 
arched  ................................  ................     10 

Loin,  thick,  broad,  long  ................................     10 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth  ..........................  2 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide  to  tail  head  ....................  3 

Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide  .................................  3 

Twist,  plump,  deep  ....................................  3 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  shank  smooth,  fine  ........  I 

WOOL: 

Kind,  domestic,  territory,  carpet  or  blanket    ............ 

Class,  clothing,  delaine  or  combing  ........ 

Grade,  fine,  medium  or  coarse  ......................... 

Quantity,  long,  dense,  even  .............................       4 

Quality,  fine,  pure;  crimp  close,  regular,  even  ...........       4 

Condition,  bright,  sound,  clean,  soft,  light  ..............       4 


Total. 


Rambouillet  ram  lamb  Imported  by  George  Harding  &  Sons,  Wauke- 
sha,  Wis.  A  frequent  first  prize  winner  in  the  state  fair  circuit  of  1899. 
Owned  by  J.  F.  Jensen,  Mount  Pleasant,  Utah. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RAMBOUILLET  SHEEP 

1*HIS  is  the  largest  breed  of  fine  wooled  sheep  and  they  have  been  established  in 
France  from  the  original  Merino  type  by  generous  feeding  and  careful  selection, 
having  in  view  a  large  form  with  tendency  towards  mutton  making  and  fleece  that 
is  fine  in  fiber,  very  long  and  markedly  dense.  The  aim  has  been  to  produce  a  fine 
wooled  sheep  with  mutton  qualities.  Size  of  form  has  been  secured  and  where  this 
possesses  sufficient  quality  and  smoothness  it  represents  a  high  order  of  combina- 
tion of  wool  and  mutton  producing  tendencies.  The  head  is  covered  with  a  dense 
growth  of  wool  extending  ever  nose,  cheek  and  around  the  eye.  The  ewe  should  be 
polled  and  the  rams  possessed  of  horns.  The  ears  are  somewhat  short,  silky  in  feel- 
ing, due  largely  to  pliability  and  a  fine  growth  of  hair.  The  neck  is  somewhat  thick 
but  comparatively  free  from  wrinkles  and  the  chest  very  deep.  The  body  should 
continue  its  depth  and  have  a  smooth  layer  of  flesh.  The  hind  quarter  should  not 
droop  but  characterized  by  levelness  with  a  crease  at  the  tail  head.  The  legs  are 
short,  strong  and  straight.  The  feature  of  most  decided  merit  connected  with  this 
breed  is  the  character  of  the  fleece  which  yields  heavily  because  of  its  unusual 
density  and  the  combination  of  length  and  fineness  which  the  fiber  shows.  The 
fleece  should  show  bright  and  lustrous  with  a  uniformly  fine  crimp  extending  from 
tip  to  base.  The  yolk  should  be  free  and  not  clotted  at  any  part  of  the  fleece. 
These  characteristics  should  be  noticeable  in  all  regions  showing  it  to  be  true  and 
even  in  quality  throughout.  The  fleece  in  addition  to  extending  well  over  the  face 
should  run  down  on  the  legs  as  far  as  possible  and  make  a  complete  covering  of  the 
belly. 


A  Merino  ewe,  winner  of  first  in  Merino  (A)  as  yearling  ewe,  and  sweep- 
stakes as  best  Merino  ewe  of  any  age,  at  the  World's  Fair,  1893;  bred  by  E.  D. 
King,  Burlington,  Kansas. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DELAINE  MERINO   SHEEP 

*I*HIS  FAMILY  of  American  Merinos  has  been  established  by  increasing  the  size 
smoothening  the  form,  lengthening  the  fiber  and  adding  somewhat  to  the  mut- 
ton properties  of  the  ancestral  stock.  In  some  families  the  polled  feature  is  an  addi- 
tional characteristic.  In  those  that  are  horned  these  should  in  turning  keep  clear 
of  the  face.  The  form  in  general  has  been  enlarged  and  smootheued  by  the  develop- 
ment of  a  tendency  to  take  on  flesh.  The  fleece  being  comparatively  free  of  wrinkles 
has  also  contributed  tothe  smoothness  of  form  which  is.  characteristic  of  the  Delaine. 
As  in  the  other  type  quality  of  bone,  skin  and  hair  and  the  addition  of  quality  of 
fleece  with  fineness  in  every  particular  should  be  mainly  characteristic.  See  official 
scale  of  points,  page  140. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MERINO   SHEEP 

THIS  BREED  with  its  fascinating  history  starting  in  Syria,  passing  into  Greece, 
from  there  to  Italy,  then  to  Spain  on  to  France  and  from  thence  to  England 
and  later  to  Australia  and  America  has  an  historical  record  for  inherent  constitu- 
tion which  has  made  them  strong  in  type  and  very  decided  in  their  characteristics. 
Size  and  mutton  form  are  not  characteristic  of  the  breed  but  quality  in  every 
requirement  is  a  striking  attribute.  The  face  is  white  and  the  head  closely  capped 
with  wool  extending  down  on  the  bridge  of  the  nose  and  completely  surrounding  the 
eyes.  The  ear  is  small,  pointed  and  covered  with  wool  and  a  soft  growth  of  hair. 
In  the  ram  the  horn  should  spring  strong  and  completely  clear  of  the  face,  the  neck 
is  light  and  so  is  the  shoulder  and  a  marked  feature  is  the  depth  of  the  chest,  the 
floor  coming  down  well  between  the  fore  legs  which  are  short  and  strong.  The  body 
is  short  the  rib  deep,  the  loin  and  hind  quarter  strong.  The  fleece  under  careful 
examination  should  be  very  dense  with  flat  surface  as  shown  by  a  very  even  pile. 
The  fiber  should  be  long,  fine,  sound  and  when  the  fleece  is  opened  it  should  part 
readily  from  end  to  end  showing  an  even  and  free  distribution  of  yolk.  To  the  finger 
and  thumb  softness  of  the  wool  should  be  apparent,  while  to  the  eye  it  should  show 
a  lustre  and  brightness  throughout.  Where  the  wrinkles  occur  they  should  not 
have  any  coarse  fibers  on  the  tops  of  the  folds  and  the  yolk  should  not  be  clotted  in 
the  creases  or  any  portion  of  the  fleece. 

The  following  scale  of  points  is  taken  from  the  Merino  Shoep  Registry: 
"  Merino  Sheep  Register— First.  Blood,  a  perfectly  authenticated  line  of  ances- 
try tracing  to  importations  made  from  Spain  prior  to  1812  without  a  mixture.  20.  Con- 
stitution, 18.  Fleece,  quality,  quantity  and  condition  as  shown  by  weight  of  fleece, 
length  and  strength  of  staple,  crimp,  fineness  and  brightness  of  fiber,  evenness 
throughout,  freedom  from  dead  fiber  and  amount  of  yolk,  13  Form,  9.  Size,  rams  at 
full  growth  in  breeding  condition  should  weigh  130  pounds  or  upwards;  ewes  100 
pounds.  9.  Head  medium  size,  muzzle  clear,  nose  covered  with  glossy,  furry  hair; 
eyes  bright  and  placid;  forehead  broad;  ears  soft,  thick  and  set  well  apart;  ewes 
hornless;  horns  on  ram  well  turned  (set  not  too  close  to  the  head  and  neck,  aor  yet 
standing  out  too  widely  from  them)  and  free  from  black  or  dark  colored  streaks,  6. 
Neck  short  on  top,  long  below;  strongly  set  to  head  and  shoulders  becoming  deeper 
towards  shoulder  folds,  heavier  underneath  and  extending  up  sides  of  neck,  includ- 
ing dewlap  and  apron,  5.  Legs  and  feet,  4.  General  apnearance,  good  carriage ;  bold, 
vigorous  style,  symmetrical  form  and  proper  complexion  of  covering,  4. 


FOR    BREEDING   PURPOSES  127 

II.      JUDGING   SHEEP   FOR   BREEDING   PURPOSES. 

In  judging  pure  bred  sheep  in  the  breeding  classes,  the 
subject  of  breed  type  should  receive  careful  considera- 
tion. While  it  has  a  bearing  on  the  judging  of  all  classes 
of  pure  bred  stock,  yet  it  is  of  double  importance  in  the 
pure  bred  classes  of  sheep. 

182.  Formation  of  Types.  The  type  that  has  be- 
come characteristic  of  each  breed  has  arisen  from  a  vari- 
ety of  causes.  In  all  instances  the  breeder's  skill  in  se- 
lecting and  mating  has  been  a  controlling  factor,  but 
other  influences  have  assisted  more  or  less.  In  some  in- 
stances, the  function  of  the  animal  or  the  work  it  is  called 
upon  to  do  has  had  a  strong  influence.  This  is  evident 
in  the  instance  of  the  running  horse,  the  trotting  horse 
and  the  dairy  cow;  where  the  form  or  the  type  has  de- 
veloped from  the  function.  In  other  instances  the  en- 
vironment has  aided  man  in  the  work  of  selection  and 
this  is  notably  true  of  sheep.  The  adaptability  of  sheep 
for  different  altitudes  of  land  enables  us  to  divide  them 
into  lowland  breeds,  upland  or  down  breeds,  and  moun- 
.tain  breeds.  The  lowland  breeds  are  large,  square  and 
strongly  framed,  and  heavy  producers  of  wool  and  mut- 
ton; the  down  breeds  are  smaller,  but  rounder  and  more 
compact  with  fleece,  frame  and  mutton  of  better  quality. 
The  mountain  breeds  must  have  more  vigor  and  agility 
than  those  previously  mentioned  to  earn  subsistence  un- 
der rougher  conditions,  so  that  the  possession  of  a  rugged 
constitution,  and  active  disposition  with  strong  limbs  and 
muscles  are  of  more  importance  than  the  other  features 
that  are  characteristic  of  other  types.  Man  seeks  to  fix 
the  type  considered  characteristic  of  the  breeds  by  elab- 
orating a  scale  of  points  representing  the  features  desired 
in  the  types  and  towards  the  production  of  these  ideal 
types  all  the  breeders  bend  their  energies. 


128  JUDGING   SHEEP 

183.  Value     of     Breed     Type.        The  type  of  the 
breed  having  been  decided  upon  by  all  the  breeders,  it 
should  be  the  aim  of  the  judge  to  recognize  it,  for  aside 
from  an  acknowledgment  of  the  wishes  of  the  breeders 
it  is  a  point  of  direct  value  to  do  so.     When  a  breed  has 
been  bred  uniformly  to  a  type  for  many  years  the  type 
has  become  so  fixed   that   it   is  uniformly  transmitted. 
Two  of  the  most  powerful  factors  aiding  the  fixing  of 
the  type  of  a  breed  are  the  breeders  seeking  to  produce 
the  animal  of  ideal  type  as  represented  by  the  scale  of 
points  and  the  judges  conforming  to  it  in  the  show  ring. 
The  result  is  influential  in  regard  to  breeding,  as  it  as- 
sists in  making  the  breed  prepotent  or  able  to  transmit 
its   characteristics   with  a  greater  degree  of  certainty. 
Another  feature  associated  with  the  fixing  of  the  breed 
type  by  the  assistance  of  the  breeder  and  the  judge  is  the 
fact  that  it  then  becomes  possible  to  select  breeding  stock 
from  among  the  pure  breeds  with  special  reference  to 
their  adaptability  for  a  definite  environment.     Knowing 
the  environment  that  has  assisted  in  producing  a  type  of 
any  breed  of  sheep  and  knowing  that  a  certain  type  has 
become  the  fixed  property  of  that  breed,  it  is  possible  to 
make  an  intelligent  choice  of  a  breed  for  any  environ- 
ment.    It  is  this  adaptability  for  different  environments 
that  has  given  us  over  twenty-five  different  breeds  of 
sheep,  and  as  it  is  the  possession  of  these  peculiarities 
which  unite  in  what  is  called  breed  type  that  gives  each  a 
place.      Consequently  it   is   important  that  the   breeder 
should  try  to  retain  the  type  and  in  this  secure  the  co- 
operation of  the  judge. 

184,  The    Ram.      Aside  from  the  breed  type  which 
is  outlined  in  the  scales  of  points  that  are  given  elsewhere, 
the  ram  in  type  should  show  masculinity  in  many  fea- 
tures.    In  those  breeds  that  have  horns,  the  latter  should 


Australian  Merino  ram,  GOLDEN  HORN  II,  bred  by  Hon.  Jas.  Gibson,  Tas- 
mania, and  owned  by  H.  K.  Roberts,  Triverton  Barwang,  New  South  Wales. 
Photo  taken  1894,  when  ram  was  eight  years  old;  sired  53  lambs  same  year  and 
sheared  lQl/2  pounds.  Sold  for  635  guineas  (over  $3,000),  July  6. 1892. 


From  photograph  in  the  "Australian  Pastoralists*  Review.1'  Merino  ram 
PRESIDENT,  bred  by  Hon.  James  Gibson;  sold  at  Sydney,  Australia,  for 
$8,000,  July,  1896. 


southdown  ewe,  winner  of  several  firsts  at  state  fairs.    Owned  by  George 
Allen,  Allerton.  Illinois 


Shropshire  ewe,  owned  by  A.  O.  Fox,  Oregon.  Wisconsin.     Winner  ol 
sweepbi-akes  at  the  World's  Fair,  1893. 


FOR  BREEDING  PURPOSES  129 

spring  strong  from  the  head  and  turn  free  from  the  face. 
In  all  rams  the  face  should  be  broad  between  the  eyes, 
somewhat  short  with  a  Roman  nose.  The  crest  or  scrag 
should  be  thick  and  rising  and  the  neck  full.  A  point  de- 
serving emphasis  is  the  depth  of  the  chest.  The  body 
should  sink  deep  between  the  fore  legs  and  the  ribs  back 
of  the  shoulder  should  be  deep  and  round,  making  the 
girth  large  and  the  brisket  prominent  and  wide,' — two 
features  that  are  indicative  of  a  strong  constitution.  A 
live  fleece,  that  is,  one  that  is  springy  and  not  dead  to  the 
touch,  and  especially  a  dense  thick  covering  of  belly 
wool  is  also  indicative  of  vigor  or  constitution.  For  the 
same  reason  in  those  breeds  that  are  wooled  about  the 
head,  the  more  complete  and  dense  this  covering  is,  the 
better  it  is  liked.  The  legs  of  the  ram  should  be  straight 
and  strong  and  short.  The  movement  of  the  ram  should 
be  bold  and  active.  This  is  often  influenced  by  the  con- 
dition. A  ram  should  never  be  so  heavy  in  flesh  as  to  be 
useless  for  service,  as  is  too  often  the  case  in  the  show 
ring.  The  flesh  should  be  even  and  firm,  and  not  gath- 
ered in  masses  or  rolls  at  any  part  of  the  body.  It  is  very 
apt  to  gather  at  the  fore  flank,  leaving  the  back  bare  or 
raw.  Excessive  condition  is  likely  to  make  the  ram  un- 
wieldy in  action  or  result  in  broken  down  pasterns  which 
usually  render  a  ram  useless  for  breeding  purposes. 

185.  The  Ewe:  The  ewe  should  be  rather  long  in 
the  face  with  fine  features.  The  neck  should  be  slender 
and  without  any  of  the  thickness  noticeable  in  the  ram. 
The  body  should  be  deep,  round  ribbed  and  specially  long 
so  as  to  provide  room  for  the  growing  lamb.  The  type 
of  the  good  milking  ewe  verges  strongly  towards  that 
which  is  typical  of  the  good  dairy  cow.  The  ewe  that 
milks  well,  and,  consequently,  rears  early  maturing  lambs 
tends  towards  the  wedge  shape,  deep  in  the  chest,  large 


130  JUDGING   SHEEP 

bodied  and  wide  across  the  loins  and  the  hips.  The  con- 
dition of  the  ewe  should  not  be  such  as  to  impair  her 
breeding  qualities.  Excessive  fatness  as  a  rule  is  in  this 
way  injurious.  The  flesh  should  be  evenly  distributed 
and  not  gathered  in  bunches  about  the  tail  head,  and  it 
should  be  firm  and  not  flabby. 

186.  Judging  Lambs  and  Flocks.  In  judging  lambs 
the  main  consideration  is  to  make  due  allowance  for 
the  differece  in  age  among  the  contestants.  As  to 
the  possibilities  of  future  development,  the  judge  can  only 
have  his  own  experience  and  observation  to  guide  him. 
It  may  be  said,  however,  that  it  will  be  found  as  a  rule 
that  the  short,  smooth  and  thick  lamb,  which  shows  best 
at  five  or  six  months  old  or  under,  will  rarely  develop  into 
a  sheep  of  desirable  size  when  mature;  while  the  lamb 
that  is  more  growthy,  yet  possessing  a  well  knit  frame, 
showing  some  length  and  also  quality,  will  develop  both 
size  and  smoothness.  Stress  should  be  laid  on  the  strength, 
straightness  and  firmness  of  the  back  and  the  depth  of  the 
body.  In  judging  flocks  the  rams  that  head  them  should 
receive  chief  consideration,  though  this  does  not  mean 
that  the  uniformity  and  the  type  of  the  ewes  should  be 
overlooked.  An  exceptionally  good  ram  either  in  the 
showing  or  in  use  as  a  sire  will  as  a  rule  obliterate  a 
multitude  of  small  faults  in  the  remainder  of  the  flock. 
In  reference  to  the  ages  of  the  individual  in  the  flock,  the 
nearer  they  are  to  being  yearlings  the  higher  they  should 
be  appraised.  Younger  than  this  calls  for  suppositions  re- 
lating to  their  development,  and  when  they  pass  beyond 
two  years,  their  worth  in  the  flock  has  lost  the  value  that 
results  from  the  production  of  one  year,  though  it  can- 
not be  said  that  the  merit  of  the  sheep  has  decreased  in 
any  other  respect. 


Photo  by  Schreiber. 
Imported  Shropshire  ewe  lambs  owned  by  W.  L.  Elkins,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Southdown  ram  lambs.    The  property  of  the  Pagham  Harbour  Company. 
Selsey,  Chichester,  England.    Winners  of  first  prize  at  R.  A.  S.  E.  Show,  1898. 


Hampshire  Down  Sheep  owned  by  John  J.  Gordon,  Mercei,  Pennsylvania. 


Imported  Oxford  Down  prize  winning  ewe,  IRCHESTER  MODEL  18445,  aud 
ram,  HOBB'S  RECTOR  1T4TO.  First  prize  winners  at  the  Trans-Mississippi  Expo- 
sition held  at  Omaha  1898.  The  ram  was  the  champion  sheep  of  the  Exposi- 
tion. Owned  by  Richard  Stone,  Stonington,  111. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   SHEEP  131 

III.     OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR  SHEEP. 

SOUTHDOWN  SHEEP.  „• 

c 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE —AMERICAN  SOUTHDOWN 

RECORD,  VOL.  I,  1884.  (J 

Head — Medium  in  size  and  hornless,  fine,  carried  well  up, 
forehead  or  face  well  covered  with  wool,  especially  be- 
tween the  ears  and  on  the  cheeks,  and  in  the  ewe  slightly 
dished  5 

Lips  and  under  jaw  fine  and  thin 1 

Ears — Rather  small,  tolerably  wide  apart,  covered  with  fine 
hair  and  carried  with  a  lively  back  and  forth  move- 
ment    2 

Eyes — Full   and   bright    .. »    ... 

Face — A  uniform  tint  of  brown,  or  gray,  or  mouse  color 3 

Neck — Short,  fine  at  the  head,  but  nicely  tapering,  and  broad 
and  straight  on  top  at  the  shoulders 4 

Shoulders— Broad  and  full,  smoothly  joining  the  neck  with 
the  back  5 

Breast — Wide,  deep  and  projecting  well  forward,  the  fore- 
Jegs  standing  well  apart  5 

Back  and  loin  broad  and  straight  from  shoulders  to  rump...     7 

Ribs — Well  arched,  extending  far  backward,  the  last  project- 
ing more  than  the  others 6 

Rump — Broad,  square  and  full,  with  tail  well  set  up 6 

Hips — Wide,  with  little  space  between  tnem  and  the  last  ribs.     6 

Thighs — Full  and  well  let  down  in  twist,  the  legs  (standing 
well  apart  6 

Limbs — Short  and  fine  in  bone,  and  in  color  to  agree  with 
face  3 

Fore  Legs — Well  wooled  and  carrying  mutton  to  the  knees, 
but  free  from  meat  below 2 

Hind  Legs — Well  filled  with  mutton  and  wooled  to  the  hocks, 
neat  and  clean  below 2 

Belly— Straight  and  well  covered  with  wool,  the  flank  extend- 
ing so  as  to  form  a  line  parallel  with  the  back  or  top 
line  5 

Fleece — Compact,  the  whole  body  well  covered  with  moder- 
ately long  and  close  wool,  white  in  color,  carrying  some 
yolk  12 

Form — Throughout  smooth  and  symmetrical,  with  no  coarse- 
ness in  any  part 9 

General  Appearance — Spirited  and  attractive,  with  a  de- 
termined look,  a  proud  and  firm  step,  indicating  consti- 
tutional vigor  and  thorough  breeding 8 

Total    ,  o 100 


132  JUDGING  SHEEP 


SHROPSHIRE  SHEEP. 


POINTS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  PURE  BRED  SHROPSHIRE  ^ 

SHEEP  RECORDED  OR  ELIGIBLE  TO  REGISTRY 
IN  THE  AMERICAN  SHROPSHIRE  REG- 
ISTRY ASSOCIATION  RECORD.  (J 

General  Appearance — Attractive,  indicating  breeding  and 
quality,  with  stylish  carriage  and  a  symmetrical  form, 
covered  with  dense  fleece 25 

Constitution — Robust  as  indicated  by  width  and  depth  of 
chest,  strength  and  formation  of  neck,  and  by  bold  act- 
ive movement  10 

Size — In  breeding  condition  when  fully  matured.  Rams 
should  weigh  not  less  than  180  to  225  pounds,  and  Ewes 
should  weigh  not  less  than  125  to  170  pounds 10 

Fleece  and  Skin — Fleece  of  good  length,  dense,  elastic  to  touch 
medium  fine,  free  from  black  fiber,  slightly  crimped, 
witfr  evenness  of  texture  throughout;  scrotum  of  rams 
well  covered  with  wool.  Skin  light  cherry  color,  clear 
and  free  from  dark  spots 15 

Body — Well  proportioned,  with  shoulders  well  placed,  fitting 
smoothly  upon  chest,  which   should  be  deep  and  wide, 
broad  and  straight  back,  thick  loins,  well  covered  with 
firm  flesh;   hind  quarters  well  finished;   twist  deep  and 
full   20 

Head  and  Neck — Head,  short,  broad  between  the  ears  and 
eyes  bold  and  masculine  in  rams,  without  horns,  well 
covered  with  wool,  ears  short  and  erect,  eyes  bright, 
color  of  face  and  ears  dark  brown.  Neck  ofl  medium 
length,  strong  and  masculine  (especially  in  rams),  sym- 
metrically joined  to  head  and  shoulders 15 

Legs — Well  set  apart,  broad,  short,  straight,  color  dark  brown 
and  well  wooled;  pastern  strong  and  upright 5 

Total..  -.100 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SHEEP     133 


HAMPSHIRE  DOWN. 


STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  ADOPTED  BY  AMERICAN 

HAMPSHIRE  DOWN  SHEEP  BREEDERS 

ASSOCIATION,  VOL.  I,  1890. 

Head — Moderately  large,  but  not  coarse;  well  covered  with 
wool  on  forehead  and  cheeks. 

Nostrils— Wide. 

Color — Head  and  Legs — Dark  brown  or  black. 

Eyes — Prominent   and   lustrous. 

Ears — Moderately  long  and  thin  and  dark  brown  or  black 
color. 

Legs — Well  under  outside  of  body,  straight  with  good  size 
of  bone,  black. 

Neck — A  regular  taper  from  shoulders  to  head,  without  any 
hollow  in  front  of  shoulders,  set  high  up  on  body. 

Shoulder^ — Sloping  full,  and  not  higher  than  the  line  of 
back  and  neck. 

C heist — Deep  and  full  in  the  heart  place,  with  breast  prom- 
inent and  full. 

Back — Straight  with  full  spring  of  rib. 

Loin — Wide  and  straight,  without  depression  in  front  of  hips. 

Quarters — Long  from  hips  to  rump,  without  sloping,  and 
deep  in  thigh.  Broad  in  hips  and  rump,  with  full  hams.  Inside 
of  thighs  full. 

I 

SCALE  OF  POINTS.  g 

Head — Size  and  shape,  5;  ears  and  eyes,  3;  color,  5;  legs  and 

feet,  2    15 

Neck,  Shoulders  and   Breast — Neck,  5;    shoulders,  10;    chest 

and  breast,  15    30 

Body— Back  and  loin,  15 ;   rib,  5 20 

Quarters — Length,  10;  width,  10;  twist,  5 25 

Wool — Forehead  and  cheeks,  2;   belly,  well  covered,  3;  qual- 
ity,  5    10 

Total   .  ..100 


134  JUDGING   SHEEP 


SUFFOLK  SHEEP. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS.       SUFFOLK  SHEEP  SOCIETY  FLOCK  o 

BOOK,  VOL.  VII,  1893.      ENGLAND. 

Head — Hornless;  face  black  and  long,  and  muzzle  moderately 
fine,  especially  in  ewes.  (A  small  quantity  of  clean 
white  wool  on  the  forehead  not  objected  to.)  Ears  a 
medium  length,  black,  and  fine  texture.  Eyes  bright  and 

full   25 

Neck — Moderate  length  and  well  set.  (In  rams  stronger,  with 

a  good  crest) 5 

Shoulder — Broad  and  oblique   5 

Chest — Deep   and    wide 5 

Back  and  Loin — Long,  level,  and  well  covered  with  meat  and 
muscle;  tail  broad  and  well  set  up.  The  ribs  long  and 

well  sprung,  with  a  full  flank 20 

Legs  and  Feet — Straight  and  black,  with  fine  and  flat  bone. 
Wooled  to  knees  and  hocks,  clean  below.  Fore  legs  well 

filled  with  mutton 20 

Belly;    Also  Scrotum  of  Rams — Well  covered  with  wool....     5 
Fleece — Moderately  short;  close,  fine  fiber,  without  tendency 
to  mat  or  felt  together,  and  well  defined,  i.  e.,  not  shad- 
ing off  into  dark  wool  or  hair 10 

Skin — Fine,  soft,  and  pink  color 5 

Total    ,  ..100 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS  OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR   SHEEP  135 

OXFORD  DOWN  SHEEP. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  AMERICAN  OXFORD  DOWN          "£ 

SHEEP  BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION.       IN    FOUR  3 

DIVISIONS.  (j 

Breed   type    ] 30 

Constitution    25 

Mutton  form  and  quality   30 

Wool    15 

SUBDIVISION  —  BREED  TYPE  OF  ANIMALS. 

Form  of  a  good  general  appearance,  made  by  a  well  balanced 
conformation,  free  from  coarseness  in  any  part,  and 
showing  good  style  both  at  rest  and  in  motion 15 

Head  of  moderate  length  and  width  between  the  ears  and 
between  the  eyes,  and  well  covered  with  wool  over  poll 
and  down  to  the  eyes.  Color  of  face  an  even  dark  gray 
or  brown,  either  with  or  without  gray  spot  on  tip  of 
nose 6 

When  fully  matured  and  in  good  condition  rams  should 
weigh  250  to  350  pounds;  ewes,  180  to  275  pounds 5 

Ears  medium  size,  not  too  thick  and  of  an  even  brown  or  dark 
gray  color  2 

Legs  short,  strong  in  bone,  flat  and  of  even  dark  gray  or 
brown  color,  placed  squarely  under  the  body  and  well 
apart  2 

CONSTITUTION. 

Large  around  the  heart  and  wide  and  full  in  the  chest 10 

The  movement  must  be  bold  and  vigorous 5 

Eyes  bold,  prominent  and  bright 4 

Skin  bright  pink  in  color    3 

Neck  strong  and  muscular  in  rams  and  well  set  on  in  both 
sexes  3 

MUTTON  FORM  AND  QUALITY. 

Wide  and  straight  on  top  of  shoulders,  back,  loin  and  rump, 
from  base  of  neck  to  tail 15 

Full  shoulders  and  thighs,  well  meated  both  inside  and  out- 
side    5 

Flanks  well  filled  and  strong  so  as  to  make  the  lower  lines 
of  the  body  as  straight  as  possible,  and  side  lines  straight 
or  rather  full  4 

The  whole  carcass  evenly  covered  with  good,  well  marbled 
meat  6 

WOOL. 

Fleece  of  moderate  length,  close  and  of  even  quality,  cover- 
ing the  whole  carcass  well,  and  free  from  black  patches 
upon  the  body,  neck  or  head 15 


136  JUDGING   SHEEP 


COTWOLD  SHEEP. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  AND  SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED      •§ 
BY  AMERICAN   COTSWOLD   ASSOCIATION, 

VOL.  V,  1892 — EWES.  CJ 

Head — Moderately  fine,  broad  between  the  eyes  and  nostrils, 
but  without  a  short,  thick  appearance,  and  well  covered 
on  crown  with  long  lustrous  wool 8 

Face — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 
dappled  with  brown  r 4 

Nostrils — Wide  and  expanded.     Nose  dark 1 

Eyes — Prominent,  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears — Broad,  long,  moderately  thin  and  covered  with  short 
hair  4 

Collar — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually 
all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join — neck 
should  be  fine  and  graceful,  and  free  from  coarse  and 
loose  skin  5 

Shoulders — Broad  and  full,  and,  at  the  same  time,  joined  so 
gradually  to  the  collar  forward  and  chine  backwards,  as 
not  to  leave  the  least  hollow  in  either  place 8 

Fore  Legs — The  mutton  on  tihe  arm,  or  fore  thigh,  should 
come  quite  to  the  knee.  Leg  upright  with  heavy  bone, 
— being  clear  from  superfluous  skin,  with  wool  to  fetlock 
and  may  be  mixed  with  gray 4 

Breast — Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  legs  wide  apart. 
Girth  and  chest  full  and  deep 10 

Fore  Flank — Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the 
shoulder  4 

Back  and  Loin — Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the  ribs 
must  spring,  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Belly — Straight  on  underline    5 

Quarters — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the 
hock  8 

Hock — Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist — Or  junction  inside  of  thighs  defep,  wide  and  full, 
which  with  a  broad  breast,  will  keep  the  legs  open  and 
upright  5 

Fleece — The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long  lustrous 
wool  18 

Total    ,  ..100 


Cotswold  ewes  from  the  flock  of  C.  E.  Ladd,  Portland,  Oregon,  showing 
the  vigor  and  thrift  of  sheep  when  under  environment  which  favors  them 
such  as  the  Williamette  Valley,  in  that  state. 


Selected  heads  to  show  the  characteristic  form  of  this  part  in  the  breeds 
represented.  The  one  to  the  left  is  photographed  from  the  head  of  a  Cots- 
wold  ram  owned  by  Messrs.  Geo.  Harding  &  Son,  of  Waukesha,  Wisconsin. 
This  photograph  shows  the  beautiful  forelock  desired  in  representatives  of 
this  breed.  The  head  shown  in  the  upper  right  hand  corner  is  that  of  an 
imported  Shropshire  ram  lamb  owned  by  Craig  &  Stevenson,  Rice  Lake,  Wis. 
The  head  shown  shows  not  only  a  very  complete  covering,  but  also  much 
width  between  the  eyes  and  across  the  forehead,  while  the  ears  are  well 
placed  being  far  apart.  The  photograph  of  the  black  faced  ram's  head  which 
appears  in  the  center  is  taken  from  Scott's  "  Black  Faced  Sheep,"  and  it  rep- 
resents the  head  of  "SEVENTY-TWO,"  first  prize  winner  at  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  Shows,  1883  to  1885.  The  horn  illustrates  the  type  which 
is  sought  in  representatives  of  any  of  the  horned  breeds. 


A  group  of  Leicester  ewes,  prize  winners  at  the  Highland  Agricultural 
Society  Show  of  Scotland. 


Suffolk  ram,  a  first  prize  winner  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show, 
.England. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SHEEP     137 


FOR  RAMS. 

u 

Head — Not  too  fine,  moderately  small,  and  broad  between  the 
eyes  and  nostrils,  but  without  a  short,  thick  appearance, 
and  in  young  animals  well  covered  on  crown  with  long 
lustrous  wool  8 

Face — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 
dappled  with  brown 4 

Nostrils — Wide  and  expanded.     Nose  dark 1 

Eyes — Prominent,  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears — Broad,  long,  moderately  thin,  and  covered  with  short 
hair  4 

Collar — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually 
all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join.  The  neck 
should  be  short,  thick  and  strong,  indicating  constitu- 
tional vigor,  and  free  from  coarse  and  loose  skin 6 

Shoulders — Broad  ana  full,  and  at  the  same  time  joined  grad- 
ually to  the  collar  forward,  and  chine  backward  a,s  not  to 
leave  the  least  hollow  in  either  place 8 

Fore  Legs — The  mutton  on  the  arm  or  fore  thigh  should 
come  quite  to  the  knee.  Leg  upright  with  heavy  bone — 
being  clear  from  superfluous  skin,  with  wool  to  fetlock, 
and  may  be  mixed  with  gray 4 

Breast — Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  legs  wide  apart. 
Girth  or  chest,  full  and  deep 10 

Fore  Flank — Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the 
shoulder  5 

Back  and  Loin — Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the  ribs 
must  spring  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Bel ly — Straight  on   underline 3 

Quarter* — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the 
hock 8 

Hock — Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist — Or  junction  inside  thighs,  deep,  wide  and  full,  which 
with  a  broad  breast  will  keep  the  legs  open  and  upright.  5 

Fleece — The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long  lustrous 
wool  18 

Total    ,  ..100 


138  JUDGING   SHEEP 


WENSLEYDALE  SHEEP.  ^ 

SCALE  OF  P0INTS.     WENSLEYDALE  FLOCK  BOOK,  3 

VOL.  II,  1891.      ENGLAND.  (J 

Head — Face  dark.  Ears  dark,  and  well  set  on.  Head  broad 
and  flat  between  ears.  Muzzle  strong  in  rams.  A  tuft 
of  wool  on  forehead.  Eyes  bright  and  full.  Head  gaily 

carried    20 

Neck — Moderate    length,    strong,    and    well    set    on    to    the 

shoulders    „   10 

Shoulders — Broad   and    oblique    5 

Chest — Deep   and   wide 10 

Wool — Bright  lustre,  curled  all  over  body,  all  alike  in  staple.   10 
Back  and  Loins — Ribs  well  sprung  and  deep.    Loin  broad  and 

covered  with  meat.     Tail  broad.     Flank  full 20 

Legs  and  Feet — Straight  and  a  little  fine  wool  below  the 
hock.  Fore  legs  set  well  apart.  Hind  legs  well  filled 

with  mutton    20 

Ski  n — Blue  fine  and  soft 5 

Total    , 100 


DORSET  HORN  SHEEP. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS.      AMERICAN  FLOCK  RECORD  OF 

DORSET  HORN  SHEEP.      VOL.  II,  1894.  (J 

General   Appearance — Head   well   up,   eyes   bright  and   alert, 

and  standing  square  on  legs 20 

Chest — Broad,  full,  brisket  well  forward 10 

Back — Broad,  straight,  with  well  sprung  ribs 15 

Quarters — Heavy,  square,  set  on  short  straight  legs,  well 

apart  10 

Legs — White,  with  small  light  colored  hoof 5 

Head — Small,  face  white,  nostrils  well  expanded,  nose  and 

lips  pink  in  color 5 

Neck — Short  and  round,  set  well  on  shoulders 5 

Horn — Neat,  curving  forward,  and  light  in  color 10 

Fore  Top — Good  and  well  covered  on  belly  and  legs 10 

Wool — Medium  quality  and  good  weight,  presenting  an  even, 

smooth,    white    surface 10 

Total    ,  100 


t/ensleydale  ewes,  first  prize  winners  at  the  Wensleydale  Agricultural 
dhow,  1892.    Bred  and  owned  by  C.  M.  Brown,  Leyburn,  England. 


Flock  of  Dorset  ewes,  reproduced  from  Live  Stock  Journal,  showing  uni- 
formity and  type  desired  in  a  foundation  flock.    Address  of  owner  not  given. 


Flock  of  Cheviot  sheep.  While  the  origin  of  the  photograph  is  unknown 
it  is  used  here  because  it  is  so  excellent  in  conception  and  in  addition  shows 
the  best  types  of  this  breed. 


Yearling  Rambouillet  ram.    First  prize  at  Minnesota  State  Fair.   Owned 
by  Cole  Brothers,  of  Spring  Grove,  Illinois. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR  SHEEP  139 


CHEVIOT  SHEEP. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS.      CHEVIOT  SHEEP  BREEDERS  FLOCK 

BOOK.      U.  S.  AND  CANADA.      VOL.  I,  1893.  {J 

Blood  —  Pure  bred  from  one  or  more  importations  from  Scot- 
land .................................................  15 

Constitution  and  Quality  —  Indicated  by  the  form  of  body; 
deep  and  large  in  breast  and  through  the  heart;  back 
wide  and  straight  and  well  covered  with  lean  meat;  wide 
and  full  in  the  thigh;  deep  in  flank;  skin  soft  and  pink  in 
color;  prominent  eyes;  healthful  countenance.  Deficiency 
of  brisket  or  fish  back  objectionable  ....................  20 

Size  —  in  fair  condition,  when  full  matured  rams  should 
weigh  not  less  than  200  pounds,  ewes,  150  pounds,  (when 
bred  in  America.  Imported  stock,  rams,  125  to  150 
pounds,  ewes,  100  to  125)  ......  .  .......................  10 

General  Appearance  —  Good  carriage;  head  well  up;  elastic 
movement;  showing  symmetry  of  form  and  uniformity 
of  character  throughout  ..............................  10 

Body  —  Well  proportioned;  small  bone;  great  scale  and 
length;  well  finished  hind  quarters;  thick  back  and  loins; 
standing  with  legs  well  placed  outside;  breast  wide  and 
prominent  in  front;  tail  wide  and  well  covered  with 
wool  .................................................  10 

Head  —  Long  and  broad,  and  wide  between  the  eyes;  ears  of 
medium  length  and  erect;  face  white,  but  small  black 
spots  on  head  and  ears  not  objectionable;  straight  or 
Roman  nose,  a  white  nose  objectionable,  end  of  nose  dark 
(but  never  smut  nose  on  top  with  black  >or  brown)  ;  no 
tuft  of  wool  on  head  ...................................  10 

Neck  —  Medium  in  length;  thick,  and  well  placed  on  the 
shoulders  ............................................  5 

Legs  and  Feet  —  Short  legs,  set  well  apart;  color  white;  no 
woo]  on  legs;  fore  legs  round,  hind  legs  flat  and  straight; 
hoofs  black  and  well  shaped  ...........................  5 

Covering  —  Body  and  belly  well  covered  with  fleece  of  medium 
length  and  good  quality  ................................  10 

Quality  of  Wool  —  Medium;  such  as  is  known  in  market  as 
half  combing  wool  ....................................  5 

Total    .  ..100 


140  JUDGING   SHEEP 


DELAINE  SPANISH  MERINO  SHEEP. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  STANDARD  DELAINE 

SPANISH  MERINO  REGISTER.  Q 

Pure  Merino  Blood — Which  must  be  established  by  certifi- 
cate   < 

Constitution — Indicated  by  a  deep  chest,  long  rib  well  arch- 
ed, giving  heart  and  lung  room,  with  great  digestive  ca- 
pacity    20 

Fleece — XX  and  delaine  wool.  This  includes  the  quantity  and 
quality  as  shown  by  weight  of  fleece,  the  length  and 
strength  of  staple,  crimp,  fineness  and  trueness  of  fiber. .  10 

Density  of   Fleece    3 

Evenness  of  Surface    3 

Evenness  of  Crimp 3 

Length    of    Fiber    2 

Free  Flowing  Oil — Of  the*best  quality  and  the  right  quan- 
tity to  protect  the  sheep  and  preserve  the  fleece 9 

Head — Medium  size.     Ewes  showing  a  feminine  appearance; 

rams,  a  masculine,  with  properly  turned  horns 4 

Eyes — Bright,   prominent  and  well   set  apart,   with  a  thick, 

soft  eye  lid 3 

Noge — Short,  broad,  with  well  expanded  nostrils,  skin  thick 
and  covered  with  thick,  furry  coating,  joining  the  wool 

one  inch  below  the  eye 4 

Ears — Medium  size,  set  well  apart,  thickly  coated 2 

Neck — Short  on  top,  deep  and  strongly  attached  to  should- 
ers, tapering  to  head;  rams  with  a  fold  across  the 

breast,   and   deep  neck 4 

Fleece — Covering  over  the  entire  body,  head  and  legs,  skin 

thick   and    spongy    ' . .     4 

Legs — Short,  strong  and  well  apart 2 

Feet — Neatly  shaped,  thin  hoof,  well  set  under  the  leg 4 

Quarters — Deep  and  well  rounded;  back,  broad,  straight  and 

strongly  coupled  to  quarters    10 

Weight — Ewes    at   maturity,    100    pounds    and    above;    rams, 

150   and  above    8 

General  Appearance — Good  carriage,  bold  and  vigorous  style, 
symmetrical  form  5 

Total    100 

Any  sheep  scaling  below  60  per  cent,  in  any  point  can  not 
be  recorded. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SHEEP     141 

BLACK  TOP  SPANISH  MERINO. 


.  _  -*^ 

SCALE  OF  POINTS.      BLACK  TOP  SPANISH  MERINO  SHEEP 

REGISTER,  VOL.  Ill,  1891.  (J 

Blood  —  Purely   bred  from   the     Humphrey     importation  of 
Merino  sheep  from  Spain,  in  the  year  1802,  as  bred  by 
W.   R.   Dickinson,   of   Steubenville,   Ohio  ................ 

Constitution  —  Indicated  by  physical  development;  deep  and 
large  in  the  breast  and  through  the  heart;  broad  back; 
very  heavy  square  quarters;  skin  of  fine  texture,  and 
pinkish  in  color;  expansive  nostril;  brilliant  eye;  health- 
ful countenance  and  good  feeders  ......................  15 

Size  —  In  good  condition,  with  fleece  of  five  months  growth, 
full  grown  rams  should  weigh  not  less  than  175  pounds, 
and  ewes  not  less  than  120  pounds  .....................  12 

General  Appearance  —  Head  carried  well  up;  standing  square- 
ly on  feet  and  legs;  well  rounded  body,  showing  in  all 
points  symmetry  of  form  ...............................  3 

Body  —  Throughout  heavy  boned;  well  proportioned  in  length; 
smooth  joints;  ribs  starting  horizontally  from  the  back 
bone,  and  well  around  to  breast  bone;  breast  bone  wide, 
strong  and  prominent  in  front;  strong,  straight  and  heavy 
back  bone;  heavy  muscular  quarters,  deep  through  and 
squarely  formed  before  and  behind;  shoulders  broad  and 
flat,  and  not  projecting  sharply  above  the  back  bone, 
muscles  firm  and  heavy,  and  body  entirely  free  from  folds. 
There  may  be  a  slight  throatiness,  and  a  small  dewlap 
—  smaller  on  the  ewes  than  en  the  rams  ................  15 

Head  —  Wide,  medium  in  length,  eyes  clear  and  bright,  prom- 
inent ears,  medium  in  size  and  covered  with  soft  fur. 
Ewes  should  give  no  appearance  of  horns,  while  upon  the 
rams1  the  horns  should  be  well  developed,  clear  in  color, 
and  symmetrically  curved,  without  tendency  to  extreme 
expansion  ..........................................  5 

Neck  —  Medium  in  length  and  very  heavy,  especially  with  the 
rams,  deepening  towards  the  shoulder  ..........  .  .....  4 

Legs  a^nd  Feet  —  Legs  medium  in  length,  set  well  apart,  medi- 
um bone  and  smooth  joints.  The  feet  must  be  well 
shaped,  medium  sized,  firm  and  solid  ..................  10 

Covering  —  Evenness  of  fleece  and  crimp;  body  and  legs  cov- 
ered to  the  knees;  head  covered  forward  between  the 
eyes;  the  surface  should  be  free  from  hair  or  gare  ____  8 

Quality  —  Medium  or  fine,  such  as  is  known  in  the  market  as 
fine  delaine  ...........................................  7 

Density  —  Shown  by  compactness  of  fleece,  which  should 
open  freely,  and  have  no  tendency  to  be  stringy  or  knotty  7 

Length  —  At  twelve  months,  growth  must  be  not  less  than 
three  inches,  and  as  near  as  may  be  of  uniform  length..  8 

Oil  —  Evenly  distributed,  white,  soft  and  flowing  freely  from 
skin  to  surface,  forming  on  the  exterior  a  uniform  dark 
coating  ..............................................  6 

Total..  ..100 


142  JUDGING   SHEEP 


TUNIS  OR  BROAD  TAILED  SHEEP. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN 
TUNIS  SHEEP  BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS.  (J 

Blood    20 

Constitution    15 

Fleece 10 

Covering   10 

Form   and  Tail    12 

Head   and    Ears    10 

Neck    IT 

Legs    6 

Size    6 

General    Appearance    G 

Total 100 

Blood — Imported  from  Tunis,  or  having  a  perfect  line  of  an 
cestors  extending  back  to  the  flock  owned  and  bred  by  Judge 
Richard  Peters  of  Belmont,  near  Philadelphia,  who  received  his 
first  pair  from  Tunis  in  1779,  and  bred  them  pure  for  more  than 
20  years. 

Constitution — Healthful  countenance,  lively  look,  head  erect, 
deep  chest,  ribs  well  arched,  round  body  with  good  length. 
Strong  straight  back;  muscles  fine  and  firm. 

Fleece — Medium  length,  medium  quality,  medium  quantity,  col- 
or tinctured  with  gray,  never  pure  white.  Evenness  throughout. 

Covering — Body  and  neck  well  covered  with  wool.  Legs  bare 
or  slightly  covered;  face  free  from  wool  and  covered  with  fine 
hair. 

Form  and  Tail — Body  straight  and  broad  and  well  proportioned. 
Small  bone;  breast  wide  and  prominent  in  front.  Tail,  the  little 
end  should  be  docked,  leaving  the  fleshy  part  fan  shaped,  or 
tapering;  five  or  ten  inches  broad,  six  or  eight  inches  long  and 
well  covered  with  wool. 

Head  and  Ears — Bead  small  and  hornless,  tapering  to  end  of 
nose;  face  and  nose  clean;  in  color,  brown  and  white.  Ears 
broad,  thin,  pendulous,  covered  with  fine  hair;  in  color  brown 
to  light  fawn. 

Neck — Medium  in  length,  well  placed  on  shoulders;  small  and 
tapering. 

Legs — Short.  In  color  brown  and  white;  slightly  wooled  not 
objectionable. 

Size — In  fair  condition,  when  fully  matured,  rams  should  weigh 
150  pounds  and  upwards;  ewes  120  pounds  and  upwards. 

General  Appearance — Good  carriage;  head  well  up;  quick, 
elastic  movements;  showing  symmetry  of  form  and  uniformity 
of  character  throughout. 


Photograph  showing  serious  Dejections  in  a  ram.    The  hind  leg  is  loo 
"Straight  and  the  pasterns  broken  down. 


Photograph  of  a  ram  chosen  to  illustrate  the  c  uaiities  not  desired  in  a 
Shropshire  ram.  Note  the  bareness  of  the  face,  thinness  and  lightness  of  the 
neck,  narrowness  and  shallowness  of  the  chest,  flat  rib,  short  hind  quarter 
with  lack  of  development  in  leg  of  mutton.  The  appearance  of  the  fleece  in- 
dicates that  it  lacks  density,  possesses  harshness,  coarseness  and  is  likely 
cotted. 


Prize  Dorset  ewe  and  lamb,  winners  at  International  Exposition,  Chica- 
go, 1900.    Owned  by  J.  E.  Wing,  Mechanicsburg.  Ohio. 


Imported  Shropshire  yearling  ewes  from  the  flock  of  Craig  &  Stevenson, 
Rice  Lake,  Wisconsin. 


JUDGING  SWINE. 


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CHAPTER  IV. 
JUDGING  SWINE. 

In  judging  swine  the  butcher's  preference  must  be  the 
leading  guide  as  it  is  in  judging  all  other  classes  of  fat 
stock.  These  preferences  are  in  turn  largely  controlled 
by  the  demands  of  the  market,  so  we  find  in  some  mar- 
kets a  bacon  hog,  so  called  because  of  its  deep,  long  sides, 
is  preferred  by  the  butchers;  while  in  others  the  prefer- 
ence is  for  fat  hogs  because  there  is  demand  for  hams, 
shoulders  and  broad,  fat  backs,  and  these  features  would 
attract  the  butcher's  attention.  In  forming  an  opinion  as 
to  the  best  type  of  swine  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  re- 
quirements of  these  two  markets  distinctly  in  view,  for 
Aey  have  established  for  us  two  very  distinct  market 
classes  of  hogs,  the  fat  hog  and  the  bacon  hog.  While 
every  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  butcher's  pref- 
erence, for  the  profit  of  hog  feeding  largely  lies  in  suc- 
cessfully catering  to  them,  yet  there  are  some  points  re- 
lating to  the  feeding  qualities  of  a  hog  which  demand 
consideration  in  the  joint  interests  of  the  feeder  and 
breeder.  The  evidences  of  constitution  and  vigor  are 
things  on  which  the  butcher  cannot  realize  profit,  but  the 
feeder  and  the  breeder  know  that  they  are  prime  essen- 
tials in  the  animals  required  for  their  purpose. 

I.      JUDGING   FAT   HOGS. 

187.  Form  —  Low,  Long,  Deep.  In  respect  to  the 
form  of  the  fat  hog,  one  of  the  leading  considerations  is 
the  weieht,  though  the  market  requirements  in  this  re- 


146  JUDGING   SWINE 

spect  are  by  no  means  stable.  At  some  times  the  market 
preferences  are  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  hog  weighing 
200  pounds,  and  again  in  a  short  while  the  4OO-pound 
hog  makes  the  top  price,  but  as  a  rule  it  will  be  found 
that  the  most  profitable  weight  for  selling  is  from  200  to 
300  pounds.  This  fact  meets  the  breeders'  preferences 
exactly,  for  he  realizes  that  up  to  the  attainment  of  this 
weight  his  hogs  have  been  making  the  most  profitable 
gain  for  him.  The  influences  of  the  present  market  are 
all  directed  towards  the  development  of  a  rapidly  matur- 
ing hog  that  will  be  in  smooth  prime  condition  for  the 
butcher  when  it  reaches  about  250  pounds  in  live  weight. 
The  hogs  that  fatten  quickest  and  meet  the  butcher's  re- 
quirements for  fat  hogs  are  low,  deep  and  wide  in  form. 
They  are  compactly  built,  deep  chested,  long,  and  round- 
ribbed,  with  straight  top  and  bottom  lines  sustained  by 
standing  squarely  on  strong  and  straight  legs.  Over  these 
parts  there  is  a  smoothness  that  is  indicative  of  the  proper 
development  of  form  and  flesh. 

188.  Quality  —  Fine    Hair;    Clean    Bone..      The  indi- 
cations of  quality  are  fine  hair  and  comparatively  light, 
hard  and  clean  looking  bone.     Fineness  of  parts  in  gen- 
eral is  an  evidence  of  quality.     Hogs  with  coarse  bone, 
coarse  hair  and  hide  are  not  the  best  breeders,  and  the 
butcher  does  not  like  them  because  of  the  large  percentage 
of  offal  which  they  dress.     In  addition  to  being  fine,  the 
hair  should  lie  close  to  the  body  and  the  skin  free  from 
undue  roughness  caused  by  scurf. 

189.  Head  —  Short,    Broad.       The  head  of  a  hog  that 
will  fatten  readily  is  very  similar  in  its  relative  portions 
and  parts  to  that  of  a  steer,  it  should  be  comparatively 
short  and  broad.    The  snout  should  be  of  medium  length 
with  the  face  fine  in  features. 


JUDGING   FAT   HOGS  147 

190.  Eyes  —  Clear,    Prominent.       The  eyes  should  be 
wide  apart  and  large  without  any  appearance  of  being 
watery.     Folds  of  fat  in  creases  about  the  eyes  are  com- 
mon, but  are  none  the  less  objectionable. 

191.  Ears  —  Small,      Fine     in     Texture.        The  ear 
should  be  small  in  size  and  pointed.     The  way  the  ear  is 
carried  depends  largely  on  the  parentage  of  the  hog,  be- 
ing erect  in  the  Berkshire,  half  drooping  in  the  Poland 
China  and  wholly  pendant  in  the  instance  of  most  of  the 
large  white  hogs.    Large  and  coarse  ears  are  generally 
associated  with  heavy  and  coarse  bone  and  hide  and  con- 
sequently they  are  not  desirable. 

192.  Jowl  — Firm,    Broad,     Neat.     The  jowl  should 
be  smooth,  firm,  broad  and  neat.     A  jowl  that  is  flabby 
owing  to  the  abnormal  accumulation  of  fat  in  this  region 
is  very  objectional,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  op- 
posite condition  which  produces  a  very  small  jowl  that  is 
sharp  at  the  edges.     This  region  should  not  be  so  full  as 
to  be  pen/! ant  and  loose. 

193.  Neck  —  Short;      Narrow    Nape.        The  neck  in 
its  upper  part  nearest  the  head  should  spring  sharply  up- 
ward and  the  ears  should  be  comparatively  fine  or  nar- 
row at  the  nape,  and  swell  quickly  to  the  breadth  of  the 
shoulders.    It  should  be  short  and  thick  and  deep  as  well, 
merging  in  this  region  into  the  brisket  without  any  shrink- 
age.    From  the  cheeks  the  neck  should  swell  smoothly 
into  the  shoulder  vein  and  pass  from  the  shoulder  with- 
out any  noticeable  depression. 

194.  Shoulder—  Full  Vein,  Level  Top.      Just   forward 
of  the  shoulder  where  the  neck  .swells  most  is  the  region 
known  as  the  shoulder  vein.     Fullness  in  this  part  is  de- 
sirable for  it  generally  results  in  a  smoothly  covered  and 
wide  shoulder.     On  top,  the  shoulder  should  be  level,  be- 
ing well  packed  with  flesh,  and  in  addition  it  should  be 


148  JUDGING   SWINE 

broad  and  deep.  To  fill  out  the  form  desired  there  should 
be  some  development  of  the  brisket,  though  as  a  rule  there 
is  very  little  of  this  in  the  fat  hog. 

195.  Front    Legs— Short,    Straight;    Pasterns    Strong. 
The  front  legs  should  be  short,  straight,  strong  and  tap- 
ering.    The  pastern  should  be  strong  and  the  feet  com- 
paratively short  and  of  medium  size.     What  are  known 
as  "bucked  knees"  or  pasterns  are  sometimes  observable 
in  hogs  that  bend  over  in  these  parts.   Long,  slim  pasterns 
are  very  undesirable,  for  hogs  having  them  readily  break 
down  when  carrying  much  flesh.     The  fat  hog  should 
stand  firm  and  high  on  the  toes  without  any  evidence  of 
weakness  of  the  pasterns.     Viewed  from  in  front  the  leg 
should  be   straight.     A  rather  common  defect  here  is 
crooked  knees  which  come  too  close  together,  but  the  re- 
verse defect  is  very  rare  among  hogs. 

196.  Chest— Low,    Wide.       The  floor  of  the  chest 
should  be  as  low  as  possible,  for  it  is  the  depth  and  width 
of  this  part  that  adds  to  the  girth.    With  width  between 
the  fore  legs  there  is  usually  width  above  on  the  shoulder, 
though  this  is  not  always  true.     The  girth  should  be 
large,  for  it  is  undesirable  to  have  any  shrinkage  just  be- 
hind the  fore  leg  at  the  fore  flank. 

197.  Sides  —  Deep,       Fleshed     Evenly.       The    sides 
may  be  deep  and  yet  supported  with  a  round  rib.  Usually 
depth  of  side  is  associated  with  flatness  of  rib,  but  there 
are  many  decided  exceptions  to  this  to  be  found  among 
fat  hogs.     When  the  rib  springs   from  the  back,  well 
arched,  and  continues  to  follow  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  it  gives  the  hog  the  appearance  of  not  only  being 
leggy,  but  also  lacking  in  depth  of  body.    The  rib,  how- 
ever, not  only  should  be  well  sprung,  but  it  should  also 
be  long,  giving  roundness  and  smoothness  of  body  with 
more  depth  than  appearance  would  indicate.     The  sides 


Photograph  showing  the  expression,  head  and  other  features  of  form 
characteristic  of  hogs  that  do  not  fatten  rapidly.  These  pigs  on  grain  and 
grass  gained  only  3ll/2  pounds  while  being  fed  91  days  in  an  experiment  by  the 
Utah  Experiment  Station. 


Photograph  showing  the  head  and  form  of  a  typical  fat  hog,  also  com- 
fortably disposed  for  rapid  increase  in  weight. 


449 


Carcass  of  a  fat  hog  showing  the  division  commonly   made    and    the    relative 
prices  of  the  various  parts  in  Chicago  market. 


447 

PRIME  PART 

»nr,.n  THICK  BACK  BACK  RIBS.  PRIME  CUT 


LOIN 


|(£09{i  18.14  f 

20.16  f 

22.17*              I       24.2  f 

5.06  f 

20.16  f 

22.l7f 

te.uif 

9.07 

^ 

-     —  ___^__ 

— 

CORNER 
GAMMON 


..      75WJff        THIN  STREAKY 
KK  STKEAK*  THICK  STREAKY  GAMMON  HOCK 

-Diagram  showing  various  cuts  of  a  side  of  bacon,  and  the  average  prices  realued  tor  each  duriue  1897. 
(Jouruui  oi  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  lt>96.) 


JUDGING   FAT  HOGS  149 

should  be  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  notice  creases  just  behind  the  shoulders  and  at 
different  points  between  the  shoulders  and  the  hips.  This 
is  an  indication  of  uneven  fattening  with  a  poor  quality 
of  flesh  and  is  consequently  objectionable.  From  the 
shoulder  to  the  ham  in  the  fat  hog  there  should  be  that 
evenness  of  line  which  would  permit  the  laying  of  a 
straight  edge  along  the  sides  from  one  of  these  points  to 
the  other  and  no  deviation  from  the  edge  should  be  no- 
ticed at  any  point.  Usually  the  development  of  the 
shoulders  or  the  hams  is  as  much  greater  as  to  leave  a 
marked  depression  behind  the  shoulder  and  forward  of 
the  ham. 

198.  Back  —  Straight,    Broad,    Evenly    Covered    With 
Flesh.         Looking  at  the  back   from  the  side   the   top 
line  should  be  straight,  though  if  it  rises  gradually  from 
the  neck  to  the  center  of  the  back  and  there  slopes  very 
gradually  to  the  tail,  it  usually  carries  more  flesh  and  is 
considered  a  stronger  and  better  back.     There  certainly 
should  be  no  depression  from  shoulder  to  tail  in  the  back 
of  the  hog  that  is  in  fat  condition.     Viewing  the  back 
from  above  it  should  appear  broad  and  the  two  lines  that 
bound  it  on  each  side  should  be  carried  straight  from  the 
upper  sides  of  the  shoulder  to  the  hips.     In  addition,  the 
back  should  be  evenly  and  thickly  fleshed.    Any  tendency 
towards  what  is  called  a  fish  back,  in  which  the  center 
rises  very  sharply,  is  undesirable. 

199.  Loin  — Wide,  Thick.       The  width  of  the  loin 
should  be  such  as  to  sustain  the  width  of  the  back.     In 
addition  to  being  wide  it  must  be  straight  and  thickly 
fleshed  to  fill  out  the  lines  properly.    Another  part  of  the 
body  that  should  receive  some  consideration  is  the  belly. 
The  underline  should  run  parallel  with  the  top  line;  that 
is,  the  belly  should  be  equally  as  straight  as  the  back. 


150  JUDGING   SWINE 

The  most  common  defect  is  a  marked  drooping  in  this 
region.  The  fore  flank  and  the  hind  flank  should  be 
nearly  on  the  same  level,  though  this  is  seldom  so,  unless 
the  hog  is  far  advanced  in  fattening.  A  full  and  pendant 
hind  flank  is  an  indication  of  fatness. 

200.  Hips  — Smoothly    Covered    With  Flesh.        The 
hips  should  be  wide  apart,  completely  covered  with  flesh 
and  low.     Where  they  are  placed  high,  it  is  seldom  that 
they   are   smoothly   covered   with  flesh.      In  an   evenly 
fleshed  hog,  the  location  of  the  hips  is  not  apparent  to 
the  eye,  so  smoothly  are  they  covered. 

201.  Rump  —  Long,   Smooth.     The  width  of  the  hips 
should  be  carried  back  over  this  part.     From  the  hip  to 
the  end  of  the  body  there  should  be  as  much  length  as 
may  be  secured.     It  is  not  possible  to  find  a  hog  that  is 
exactly  level   over  this  part,   as  they  invariably  droop 
somewhat  towards  the  tail,  but  some  nevertheless  closely 
approach  exact  levelness  in  this  region. 

202.  Hams  —  Wide,    Deep,    Plump.      Looking  at  the 
ham  from  the  side,  it  should  be  wide  from  the  stifle  to 
the  end  of  the  body  and  it  should  also  be  plump  and  full 
right  down  to  the  hock.     Viewed  from  behind,   width 
from  between  the  legs  to  the  outside  of  the  ham,  is  very 
desirable.     Perhaps  the  most  difference  in  this  part  will 
be  found  in  the  degree  to  which  the  ham  continues  plump 
and  full  towards  the  hock.    This  part  of  the  thigh  should 
not  be  bare,  but  heavy  with  flesh. 

203.  Hind   Legs  — Properly  Set,  Strong.      The  most 
common  defect  of    the   hind    leg    is    a    cramped    condi- 
tion of  the  hock.     Though  this  is  most  usually  found  in 
hogs  with  light  bone,  yet  it  is  common  among  hogs  that 
otherwise  appear  strong  in  the  limbs.  It  is  noticeable  that 
many  hogs  are  higher  behind  than  in  front,  showing  the 
line  running  from  the  hind  quarter  to  the  head,  to  be  very 


JUDGING   FAT   HOGS  151 

slanting.  This  is  generally  caused  by  the  undue  length 
of  the  hind  legs.  The  legs  should  be  short,  strong  and 
placed  wide  apart  and  when  the  hog  moves  the  hind  and 
the  front  legs  should  pass  forward  in  a  straight  line.  An 
in  and  out  movement  of  the  legs  is  not  uncommon  and  it 
accounts  for  much  of  the  awkwardness  observable  in  the 
gait  of  fat  hogs. 

*-  £ 

SCALE  OF   POINTS   FOR   FAT   HOGS— BARROW. 

I1 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Weight,  score  according  to  age 6 

Form,  deep,  broad,  low,  long,  symmetrical,  compact, 
standing  squarely  on  legs 10 

Quality,  hair  silky;  skin  fine;  bone  fine;  flesh  smooth, 
mellow,  and  free  from  lumps  or  wrinkles 10 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  flesh,  especially  in  reg- 
ions of  valuable  cuts ...  10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse i 

Eyes,  full,  mild,  bright i 

Face,  short,  cheeks  full i 

Ears,  fine,  medium  size,  soft i 

Jowl,  strong,  neat,  broad i 

Neck,  thick,  medium  length i 

FORE  QUARTERS : 

Shoulder,  broad,  deep,  full,  compact  on  top 6 

Breast,  advanced,  wide 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  bone  clean;  pasterns  up- 
right; feet  medium  size 2 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  broad,  large  girth 2 

Sides,  deep,  lengthy,  full;    ribs  close  and  well  sprung. ...  6 

Back,  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed 10 

Loin,  wide,  thick,  straight 10 

Belly,  straight,-  even 2 

HIND  QUARTERS : 

Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth , 2 

Rump,  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed,  straight 2 

Ham,  heavily  fleshed,  plump,  full,  deep,  wide 10 

Thighs,  fleshed  close  to  hocks 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  bone  clean;  pasterns  upright; 

feet  medium  size 2 

Total..  .  100 


152  JUDGING  SWINE 

II.       JUDGING   BACON   HOGS. 

Owing  to  the  demand  that  has  originated  in  the  mar- 
kets for  lean  meats,  the  bacon  type  of  hog  has  been 
evolved.  The  consumption  of  bacon  has  extended 
greatly  and  this  has  made  a  strong  demand  on  the  large 
markets  for  the  type  of  hog  which  produces  this.  To  ob- 
tain a  clear  conception  of  the  type  required  it  is  essential 
to  remember  that  flesh  is  the  leading  characteristic  de- 
manded and  with  this  there  are  certain  peculiar  cuts 
which  are  quite  distinct  from  those  taken  from  the  fat  hog. 

204.  Condition  — Even    and    Thick    Fleshed.         The 
condition  of  the  bacon  hog  is  a  feature  of  paramount  im- 
portance, for  it  must  be  smooth  over  all  parts  with  a  thick 
covering  of  flesh.    It  is  very  necessary  to  understand  that 
a  thin  hog  is  not  in  any  sense  a  bacon  hog.     In  the  bacon 
hog  it  is  desirable  to  have  about  one  inch  of  fat  with  an 
abundance  of  lean  flesh  in  the  carcass.    It  is  flesh,  muscle 
or  lean  meat  that  is  desirable  and  not  in  any  sense  a  thin 
carcass. 

205.  Form — Smooth,  Long,  Level,  Deep.     An  important 
point  among  the  desirable  characteristics  of  the  bacon 
hog  is  that  of  form,  because  this  must  be  peculiar,  as 
there  are  unusual  cuts  to  be  made  from  the  carcass.    The 
side  should  be  as  long  as  possible  with  great  depth  and 
levelness  from  shoulder  to  hip.  The  shoulder  should  not 
bulge  out  and  the  hams  should  not  be  pendant  and  plump 
as  in  the  case  of  the  lard  hog.     If  a  straight  edge  is  laid 
along  the  side  of  the  typical  bacon  hog  it  should  touch 
every  point  from  the  start  of  the  shoulder  to  the  end  of 
the  hind  quarter.     Width  is  not  sought  for,  but  length 
and  depth  are  cardinal  points.     The  form  should  show  a 
striking  trimness  in  every  region,  due  to  an  even  cover- 
ing of  smooth  flesh  without  any  soft  or  flabby  parts  and 


Fhoto  from  Ontario  Farmers'  Institute  Report. 

Photograph  showing  packers'  model  of  a  bacon  hog.  The  extreme  length, 
levelness  and  smoothness  are  the  particular  features  of  this  type. 


Photo  from  Ontario  Farmers'  Institute  Report 

Photograph  illustrating  a  pig  too  thin  for  the  bacon  market,  but  of  desir- 
able type  in  other  essentials. 


Duroc-Jcrscy  sow,  Hiss  LOGAN  13404,  a  sweepstakes  winner,  owned  by 
I].  P..  Watson,  Newton.  Iowa.  Ucing  close  to  the  ground  and  full  made  and 
compact,  this  sow  shows  the  leading  characteristics  of  this  breed. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   DUROC-JERSEY   SWINE 

HJT  THE  National  Swine  Breeders  Convention,  held  in  1872,  the  Jersey  swine  of 
New  Jersey  and  the  Durocs  of  New  \ork  were  classified  in  the  families  of  red 
swine  with  similar  characteristics ;  the  Durocs  it  was  then  stated  being  finer  in  bone 
and  carcass  than  the  other  reds.  Previous  to  that  time  the  Jersey  reds  had  been 
bred  in  New  Jersey  state  for  over  fifty  years.  The  most  popular  color  for  this  breed 
is  a  deep  cherry  red  without  any  markings.  The  type  most  approved  is  that  of  a  very 
compact  hog  exceedingly  smooth  in  all  parts  and  very  close  to  the  ground.  The 
head  is  fine,  the  car  light  and  pendent,  neck  short  anr.  thick,  the  shoulder  full  yet 
smooth  with  the  body,  the  back  slightly  arching,  wide  and  strong.  The  hips  deep 
and  the  hind  quarter  very  plump  and  full  with  meat  yet  somewhat  short,  the  legs 
arc  very  short  and  straight  allowing  the  frame  to  approach  very  close  to  the  ground. 
The  type  is  that  of  a  very  early  maturing  hog  that  will  dress  a  high  percentage  of 
valuable  cuts.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  177. 


JUDGING   BACON   HOGS  153 

a  well  coupled  form  without  undue  coarseness.  This 
trimness  should  be  observable  in  the  smoothness  by  which 
the  shoulder  and  the  quarter  join  the  side,  and  it  is  also 
brought  out  very  effectively  by  the  thick  trim  belly  which 
is  characteristic  of  the  bacon  type. 

206.  Weight.     In  reference  to  the  weight  that  is  de- 
sirable, the  packers  uniformly  prefer  a  hog  weighing  from 
1 70  to  200  pounds  live  weight.    This  preference  exists  in 
the  markets  of  the  world  and  most  decidedly  in  that  of 
Great   Britain   where   the   production   of   this   hog  has 
reached  its  highest  development.     It  seems  that  a  hog  of 
this  weight  in  proper  condition  offers  the  most  satisfac- 
tory cuts,  both  in  weight  and  quality. 

207.  Shoulders  —  Smooth,    Compact.      It  will  not  be 
necessary  to  dwell  on  the  minor  points  desired  in  the 
bacon  type,  but  merely  to  discuss  the  salient  features. 
Among  these  the  shoulders  demands  attention,  for  they 
are  much  different  in  the  ideal  bacon  hog  than  they  are 
in  the  typical  fat  hog.     The  shoulder  in  the  bacon  type 
is  not  heavy,  but  completely  free  from  roughness  and 
characterized  by  compactness.    It  should  fit  closely  to  the 
body  and  not  show  any  more  width  than  the  back  and 
hind  quarter,  thereby  adding  to  the  trimness  of  form 
which  is  eminently  desired  in  hogs  of  this  type.     The 
flesh   should   extend  well   down  on  the  leg,   indicating 
muscular  development  with  a  long  shoulder  cut. 

208.  Sides  —  Long,   Smooth,    Level.       The  side  is  a 
very  characteristic  point  in  the  bacon  type,  as  it  should 
possess  as  much  length  as  possible  with  smoothness  and 
levelness  from  the  beginning  of  the  shoulder  to  the  end 
of  the  hind  quarter.    The  choicest  bacon  comes  from  this 
region  and  on  this  account  there  should  be  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  dressed  weight  in  this  region.     The  upper 


154  JUDGING  SWINE 

part  of  the  side  should  carry  a  straight  line  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  hip  and  the  lower  side  should  show  almost 
as  full  a  line  running  from  the  elbow  to  the  stifle.  The 
belly  should  be  thicker  with  flesh  than  is  usual  in  the  case 
of  the  fat  hog.  In  addition  this  part  should  be  trim  in 
form  and  thick  without  any  flabbiness  or  shrinkage  at 
either  the  fore  or  hind  flank.  The  hind  quarter  of  the 
bacon  type  is  markedly  different  from  that  of  the  fat  hog, 
because  the  extreme  development  of  the  latter  is  not 
considered  an  advantage  in  the  bacon  type.  In  the  bacon 
hog  the  hips  should  be  smooth  and  proportionately  wide 
to  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  hind  quarter  should  be  long, 
even  and  straight  and  slightly  rounded  towards  the  tail. 
A  peculiar  feature  in  the  hog  of  this  type  is  the  gammon, 
which  is  a  cut  very  similar  to  the  ham.  This  should  be 
firm,  rounded,  tapering  and  fleshed  deep  and  low  towards 
the  hocks.  Plumpness  or  fullness  in  this  part  is  not  con- 
sidered an  advantage ;  while  length  with  smooth  develop- 
ment of  muscle  is  a  prime  requisite. 


Poland-China  sow.  a  wincer  of  many  prizes  at  state  fairs,  ownca  cy 
Messrs.  Risk  &  Gabbert.  Weston,  Missouri.  This  sow  shows  very  smooth  and 
is  especially  thickly  fleshed  over  shoulder,  baek  and  ham,  the  valuable  cuts 
of  the  fat  hog  type.  Though  heavy,  note  how  erect  she  stands  on  her  pas- 
terns. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  POLAND-CHINA  SWINE 

VHIS  AMERICAN  breed  of  swine  originated  in  the  Miami  Valley  of  the  Ohio  dur- 
ing the  years  intervening  between  1835  to  1840.  It  had  for  Hs  ancestry  a  large, 
coarse  hog  that  was  broken  in  color,  being  mostly  white  and  black.  The  improve- 
ment of  the  lust  40  years  has  resulted  in  producing  an  exceedingly  symmetrical  hog 
with  early  maturing  qualities  which  has  been  added  to  further  by  disposition  very 
favorable  to  quick  fattening.  The  modern  type  shows  unusual  fullness  which 
makes  the  width  of  the  body  remarkable  though  giving  the  appearanceof  undue  short- 
ness. With  it  all  there  is  a  quality  of  hair,  bone  and  skin  which  contributes  in  a  great 
degree  to  the  percentage  of  meat  from  the  carcass.  The  color  is  black  with  a  few 
white  markings,  these  consisting  preferably  of  a  splash  on  the  face,  four  white  feet 
and  white  on  tip  of  the  tail.  The  coat  of  hair  should  be  thick,  fine  and  free  from 
swirls  or  spots  around  which  the  hair  seems  to  twist.  The  head  is  small,  slightly 
dished  and  runs  to  a  fine  snout.  The  ear  starts  strong  and  straight  from  the  head 
but  break  and  drops  about  one-third  its  length.  The  shoulder  is  well  covered  on 
top.  the  girth  full,  ribs  well  sprung,  deep;  hind  quarter  very  full  with  deep  ban:* 
The  desirability  of  plumpness  in  all  parts  should  not  lead  to  undue  shortness  of 
body  nor  lack  of  length  in  the  hind  quarters.  Straightness  in  the  latter  is  also 
desirable  as  frequently  the  drop  from  the  hip  to  the  tail  is  quite  marked.  The  legs 
should  be  straight  and  strong  and  the  pasterns  set  so  as  to  make  the  hog  appear  to 
he  landing  on  the  very  tips  of  its  t^es.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  181. 


Berkshire  sow.  EMMIICK'S  MATCH  M<:SS,  :i,  pri/e  winner  owned  by  Mr.  Edwin 
Iluss,  England. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  BERKSHIRE   SWINE 

POURING  the  last  century  this  British  breed  of  swine  has  been  the  subject  of  high 
breeding  and  careful  selection.  Writing  in  1790,  Lawrence  describes  the  Berk- 
shire as  being  "long  and  crooked  in  snout,  muzzle  turning  upwards,  ears  large  and 
heavy  a::d  inclined  to  bo  pendulous,  the  body  long  and  thick  but  not  deep,  legs 
short,  bone  largo  and  great  size.11  In  "The  Complete  Grazier,"  written  in  1805,  the 
Berkshire  of  that  time  is  described  as  follows  :  "  Color  reddish  brown,  with  brown 
or  black  s;iots,  sides  very  broad,  flat  legs,  ears  large  and  pendulous  over  eyes,  body 
chick,  close  and  well  made."  The  modern  type  of  this  breed  reflects  many  changes 
from  the  old,  as  it  represents  a  hog  that  is  black  in  color  with  white  on  the  face, 
feet  and  tip  of  tail.  They  are  not  such  a  large  hog  as  those  of  the  original  stock  as 
they  are  Ion  j  in  type,  trim  without  undue  roughness  over  the  shoulder  or  promi- 
nence of  hips.  The  face  is  short  and  dished,  the  ears  short,  pointed  and  erect,  jaws 
full,  back  broad  and  straight,  full  over  the  shoulder,  the  loin  thick  and  level  and 
the  hams  especially  full  with  short,  strong  and  straight  legs.  Straightness  in  lines 
and  trimness  and  smoothness  over  all  parts  are  leading  Berkshire  characteristics 
and  these  should  be  strongly  in  evidence  along  the  back  and  especially  from  the 
hock  backward  us  the  hind  quarter  should  come  out  square  to  the  tail  and  be  full. 
As  straightness  and  strength  of  legs  are  leading  Berkshire  features,  it  should  be 
noted  that  the  foro  legs  drop  straight  without  any  crookedness  at  the  knee  and  the 
hind  legs  should  not  appear  cramped  above  the  hock.  A  thick  coat  of  black  hair 
lying  close  to  the  body  and  without  swirls  should  contribute  much  to  the  general 
appearance  of  smoothness  which  is  due  in  the  main  to  an  oven  covering  of  firm  yet 
Miellov/  flesh.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  1.">s. 


JUDGING   BACON   HOGS  155 


SCALE   OF  POINTS   FOR   BACON  HOGS—  BARROW. 


<*;  u 
" 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE  ; 

Weight,  170  to  200  Ibs.,  largely  the  result  of  thick  cover 
of  firm  flesh  .........................................  6 

Form,  long,  level,  smooth,  deep  ........................     10 

Quality,  hair  fine;  skin  thin;  bone  fine;  firm,  even  cover- 
ing of  flesh  without  any  soft  bunches  of  fat  or  wrinkles  .  .  10 

Condition,  deep,  uniform  covering  of  flesh,  especially  in 
regions  of  valuable  cuts  .............................  10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 
Snout,  fine 

Eyes,  full,  mild,  bright 
Face,  slim 

Ears,  trim,  medium  size 
Jowl,  light,  trim.  .  , 
Neck,  medium  length,  light 

FORE  QUARTERS  ; 

Shoulders,  free  from  roughness,  smooth,   compact  and 
same  width  as  back  and  hind  quarters  .................       6 

Breast,  moderately  wide,  full  ...........................      2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  bone  clean;  pasterns  upright; 
feet  medium  size  ..........  .  ..........................  2 

BODY; 

Chest,  deep,  full  girth  .................................      4 

Back,  medium  and  uniform  in  width,  smooth  ............       8 

Sides,  long,  smooth,  level  from  beginning  of  shoulders  to 
end  of  hind  quarters.      The  side  at  all  points  should 
touch  a  straight  edge  running  from  fore  to  hind  quarter.     10 
Ribs,  deep  ............................................      2 

Belly,  trim,  firm,  thick  without  any  flabbiness  or  shrink- 
age at  flank  .........................................  10 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide;  proportionate  to  rest  of  body  ........       2 

Rump,  long,  even,  straight,  rounded  toward  tail  .........       2 

Gammon,  firm,  rounded,  tapering,  fleshed  deep  and  low 

toward  hocks  ........................................      8 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  feet  medium  size;  bone  clean; 

pasterns  upright  .........................  .............       2 

Total.  ..loo 


156  JUDGING  SWINE 

III.      JUDGING   SWINE    FOR    BREEDING   PURPOSES. 

The  judging  of  swine  in  the  pure  bred  classes  requires 
of  the  judge  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  scale  of 
points  adopted  by  the  different  associations  of  the  various 
breeds.  These  scales  of  points  have  been  arranged  with 
much  labor  by  the  associations  and  consequently  they 
should  be  closely  followed.  As  they  are  published  in  full 
in  another  part  of  this  work  attention  will  be  here  given 
to  a  few  peculiar  points  that  should  be  sought  in  all 
breeds. 

209.  Boar.     In  addition  to  having  the  characteristics 
of  the  type  of  the  breed,  the  boar  should  be  strong  in 
those  traits  that  are  peculiar  to  the  sex.     The  head  may 
be  slightly  inclined  to  coarseness,  the  neck  full  and  arched 
somewhat,  with  the  shoulder  heavy.     The  fore  quarters 
are  usually  slightly  heavier  than  the  hind  quarters  and 
this  distinction  grows  greater  with  age  as  the  shields  de~ 
velop.     Strength  of  frame  without  coarseness  is  desira- 
ble and  the  body  should  be  deep,  long  and  low.    Just  be- 
hind the  elbow  there  should  be  as  much  depth  as  possible, 
as  this  with  a  rugged  appearance  is  indicative  of  a  vigor- 
ous constitution.     Short  and  strong  limbs  with  straight 
pasterns  of  a  fine  quality  should  carry  the  body  easily 
and  without  awkwardness  at  all  times. 

210.  Sow.      Omitting  consideration  of  the  breed  type 
the  sow  should  represent,  the  sex  type  is  of  first  import- 
ance.   There  should  not  be  the  least  appearance  of  coarse- 
ness— the  head  should  be  light,  neck  slim  and  neat  and 
also  inclined  to  sharpness  between  and  back  of  the  ears. 
In  the  sow  it  is  expected  that  the  hips  and  hind  quarters 
should  be  slightly  wider  than  the  fore,  though  the  width 
before  and  behind  should  be  almost  uniform.    Length  of 
body  is  specially  desirable  to  give  room  for  the  growth  of 


Improved  Yorkshire  sow,  a  first  prize  winner  at  Toronto  Industrial  Exlu- 
bition,  owned  by  J.  E.  Brethour,  Burford,  Ontario. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  YORKSHIRE  SWINE 

are  three  varieties  of  Yorkshires,  namely;  the  large,  middle  and  the 
small,  and  as  may  -be  surmised  these  divisions  are  based  wholly  on  size.  The 
large  Yorkshbe  is  descended  from  the  old  English  which  were  white  in  color  with  a 
few  black  spots  and  it  wus  bred  principally  in  Yorkshire.  Both  the  white  Chinese 
pigs,  introduced  at  an  early  time  in  England,  and  the  Neapolitan  swine  were  used 
slightly  upon  the  native  stock.  The  middle  Yorkshire  originated  by  crossing  the 
small  and  largo  varieties.  The  small  Yorkshire  is  an  offshoot  of  the  large  varieties 
containing  a  large  percentage  of  Chinese  blood.  The  improved  large  Yorkshire 
retains  the  hardiness  and  prolificness  of  the  old  English  hog  and  has  improved  in 
symmetry,  flesh  and  early  maturity  through  the  Chinese  cross.  They  are  strong 
in  bone,  deep  and  long  in  body  and  of  medium  quality  throughout.  They  have 
thick  bellies,  well  mixed  meat  and  long  sides,  points  that  curers  of  bacon  value 
highly.  The  middle  or  improved  Yorkshire  are  as  heavy  as  the  large  variety  but 
are  lighter  in  bone  and  head  with  a  smaller  quantity  of  offal.  In  type  they  are  very 
similar  to  the  large  Yorkshire,  being  long,  level  and  deep  in  carcass.  The  small 
Yorkshire  are  finer  in  quality,  possess  more  symmetry  and  they  are  more  compact 
in  form.  These  features  contribute  to  their  early  maturity  but  do  not  enable  them 
to  attain  the  heavy  weights  of  the  others.  All  the  varieties  are  white  in  color  a  few 
blue  spots  are  permissible  but  these  should  not  be  covered  with  colored  hair.  See 
official  scale  of  points,  page  182. 


Chester  White  sow,  ALMA,  sired  by  Coco  2223.  The  property  of  Joseph 
Cairns,  Camhichie,  Ontario,  Cannda.  The  litter  of  ALMA  when  three  months 
old  tipped  the  scales  at  100  pounds. 


DESCHIPTION  OF  THE   CHESTER  WHITE    SWINE 

*PniS  BREED  which  originated  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century  was  the. result  of  crossing  the  big  Chinas  with 
white  pigs  from  Bedfordshire,  England,  which  were  of  Yorkshire  descent,  thus  giving 
these  breeds  much  in  common.  The  Chester  White  is  a  large  breed,  strong  though 
line  in  bone,  vigorous  with  very  deep  and  lengthy  bodies.  They  should  be  pure 
white  in  color  and  where  black  spots  occur,  these  should  not  be  covered  with  colored 
hair.  The  head  has  a  fine  snout  with  broad  face  slightly  dished  and  the  ears  pen- 
dent. The  jowl  is  light  and  the  neck  short  and  deep.  Depth  of  chest  is  a  very  desir- 
able characteristic  and  this  should  also  be  a  feature  of  the  body.  The  shoulder 
should  fit  snugly  to  the  body  and  its  width  should  be  almost  uniform  with  that  of 
the  body  andchind  quarter.  Uniformity  in  these  lines  is  desirable  as  the  girth  over 
the  heart  should  be  about  equal  to  that  around  the  flank.  The  hair  should  be  fine 
and  lie  ciOse  to  the  body  without  any  tendency  to  harshness  or  extreme  coarseness. 
Seo  official :scale  of points,  page  174. 


FOR  BREEDING  PURPOSES  157 

the  litter.  There  should  be  twelve  teats  beginning  well 
forward  and  none  of  them  blind.  Blind  teats  in  young 
sows  do  not  protrude  as  the  normal  teats  do,  and  when 
the  sow  has  farrowed  they  usually  fail  to  yield  any  milk. 
In  judging  swine  the  best  plan  is  to  have  them  arranged 
in  small  yards  so  that  they  may  be  readily  compared  and 
driven  enough  to  determine  whether  or  not  they  are 
strong  and  active  on  their  legs. 


158  JUDGING  SWINE 


IV.      OFFICIAL  STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE. 
BERKSHIRE  SWINE. 


STANDARD   OF   EXCELLENCE   ADOPTED    BY   THE   AMERICAN          § 
BERKSHIRE  ASSOCIATION.  Q 

Color  —  Black,  with  white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail  and  an  oc- 

casional splash  en  the  arm  ............................     4 

Face  and  Snout—  Short;  the  former  fine  and  well  dished,  and 

broad  between  the  eyes  ...............................     7 

Eye  —  Very  clear,  rather  large,  dark  hazel  or  gray  ............     2 

Ear  —  Generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclined  forward 

with  advancing  age;  medium  size;  thin  and  soft  ........     4 

Jowl  —  Full  and  heavy,  running  well  back  on  neck  ............     4 

Neck  —  Short  and  broad  on  top  ..............................     4 

Hair  —  Fine  and  soft;  medium  thickness  ......................     3 

Skin  —  Smooth  and  pliable  .............  .    ..................     4 

Shoulder  —  Thick  and  even,  broad  on  top,  and  deep  through 

chest  ...............................................     7 

Back  —  Broad,  short  and  straight;  ribs  well  sprung,  coupling 

close  to  hips  ..........................................     8 

Side  —  Deep  and  well  let  down;  straight  on  bottom  lines  ......     6 

Flank  —  Well  back  and  low  down  on  leg,  making  nearly  straight 

line  with  the  lower  part  of  side   ......................     5 

Loin  —  Full    and   wide  ...............................  .  .....     i) 

Ham  —  Deep  and  thick,  extending  well  up  on  back,  and  hold- 

ing thickness  well  down  to  hock  ........................   10 

Tail  —  Well  set  up  on  back;  tapering  and  not  coarse  ..........     2 

Legs  —  Short,  straight,  and  strong,  set  wide  apart,  with  hoofs 

erect  and  capable  of  holding  good  weight  ..............     5 

Symmetry  —  Well  proportioned  throughout,  depending  large- 

ly on  condition  ......................................     6 

Condition  —  In  a  good  healthy,  growing  state;  not  over-fed..  5 
Style  —  Attractive,  spirited,  indicative  of  thorough  breeding 

and  constitutional  vigor  ...........................  ...     5 

Total    ..................  .-  ...........................  100 

BERKSHIRE   SWINE. 

The  Berkshire  Society  of  Great  Britain  has  issued  to  the  lead- 
ing Agricultural  Show  Societies  the  following  instructions  as 
guides  to  judges  in  making  their  awards: 

"We  recommend  that  a  perfectly  black  face,  or  a  black  foot, 
or  black  tail  should  disqualify  a  pig  in  the  show  yard.  White  or 
sandy  spots  on  the  top  or  sides  of  the  animal,  or  a  decidedly 
white  ear  should  be  disqualifications.  Any  deszription  of  coloring 
staining  or  clipping  should  also  be  a  disqualification.  White  on 
the  ear  or  under  the  throat  or  on  the  underline  of  the  bodj, 
should  be  considered  objectionable.  Either  too  much  or  too  little 
white  in  the  place  of  the  recognize^  markings  should  be  an  ob- 
jection, also  to  be  noted  in  the  competition." 


OFFICIAL,   STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE  159 

DESCRIPTION    OF   BERKSHIRE  —  ARRANGED   BY  THE   NATIONAL 
ASSOCIATION    OF   EXPERT  JUDGES   OF   SWINE,   1897. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Very  large  and  heavy  or  drooping  ears;  small,  cramped 
chest,  crease  back  of  shoulders  and  over  tne  back  so  as  to 
cause  a  depression  in  back  easily  noticed,  deformed  or  crooked 
legs,  feet  broken  down,  so  that  the  animal  walks  on  pastern 
joints. 

Size. — Overgrown,  gangling,  narrow,  contracted  or  not  two- 
thirds  large  enough  for  age. 

Condition. — Barrenness,  deformed,  seriously  diseased,  total 
blindness  from  any  cause. 

Score. — Les  than  sixty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

DETAILED    DESCRIPTION. 

1. — Head  and  Face. — Head  short,  broad,  coming  well  forward 
at  poll,  face  short  and  fine  and  well  dished,  broad  between  the 
eyes  tapering  from  eyes  to  point  of  nose,  surface  even  and  regu- 
lar. 

Objections. — Head  long,  narrow  and  coarse,  forehead  low  and 
narrow,  jaws  narrow  or  contracted,  lower  jaws  extending  be- 
yond upper;  face  long,  straight  between  the  eyes;  nose  coarse, 
thick  or  crooked,  or  ridgy. 

2. — Eyes. — Very  clear,  rather  large,  dark,  hazel  or  gray. 

Objections. — Small,  dull,  bloodshot,  deep  set  or  obscure,  vision 
impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other  cause. 

3. — Ears. — Generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclined  for- 
ward with,  advancing  age,  medium  size,  thin  and  soft. 

Objections. — Large,  coarse,  thick,  round  or  drooping,  long  or 
large  knu,ck,  difference  in  form,  size  or  positron  one  with  the 
other,  animal  unable  to  control  tneir  position. 

4. — Neck. — Full,  deep,  short  and  slightly  arched,  broad  on  top, 
well  connected  with  shoulder. 

Objections. — Long,  flat,  lacking  in  fullness  and  depth. 

5. — Jowl. — Full,  firm  and  neat,  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoul- 
der and  brisket. 

Objections^ — Light,  flabby,  thin,  tucked  up  or  wrinkled. 

6. — Shoulder. — Broad,  deep  and  full,  not  extended  above  line 
of  back  and  being  as  wide  on  top  as  back,  carrying  size  down 
to  line  of  belly  and  having  lateral  width. 

Objections. — Lacking  in  depth  or  width,  thick  beyond  the  line 
of  sides  and  hams  or  extending  above  line  of  back,  heavy  shields 
on  hogs  under  eighteen  months  of  age. 

7. — Chest. — Large,  wide  deep  and  roomy,  full  girth,  breast 
bone  curving  well  forward,  extending  back  on  level,  not  tucked 
up,  broad  between  fore  legs. 

Objections. — Flat,  narrow  at  top  or  bottom,  small  girth,  lack- 
ing depth  or  fullness,  breast  bone  crooked  or  tucked  up. 

8. — Back. — Broad  and  straight,  carrying  same  width  from 
shoulder  to  ham,  surface  even  and  smooth  without  creases  or 
projections  and  not  too  long. 

Objections. — Narrow,  swayed  or  hollow,  dropping  below  a 
straight  line. 


160  JUDGING   SWINE 

9. — Sides  and  Ribc. — Sides  full,  smooth,  firm  and  deep,  carrying 
size  down  to  belly  and  evenly  from  ham  to  shoulder.  Ribs  long, 
strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections. — Flat,  thin,  flabby,  not  as  full  at  bottom  as  top. 
Ribs  weak,  net  well  sprung  at  top  or  bottom. 

10. — Belly  and  Flank. — Wide,  full  and  straight  on  bottom  line. 

Objections. — Belly  narrow  and  sagging.  Flank  thin  and  tuck- 
ed up. 

11. — Ham  and  Rump. — Hams  broad,  full  and  long;  the  lower 
front  part  of  ham  should  be  full  and  stifle  well  covered  with 
flesh,  coming  well  down  on  hock.  Rump  should  have  a  round- 
ing slope  from  loin  to  root  of  tail,  same  width  as  back  and  filling 
out  on  each  side!  and  above  the  tail. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow,  short,  thin,  not  projecting  beyond 
and  coming  down  on  hock,  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch.  Rump 
flat,  narrow  and  too  steep. 

12. — Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  short,  straight  and  strong,  set 
wide  apart  with  hoofs  erect  and  capable  of  holding  good  weight. 

Objections. — Legs,  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked,  muscles  light, 
pastern  long,  slim  or  flat,  feet  long  or  sprawling. 

13. — Tail. — Well  set  up,  fine,  tapering  and  neatly  curled. 

Objections. — Coarse  and  straight,  too  low. 

14. — Coat. — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  laying  close  to  and  cover- 
ing body  well,  not  clipped,  evenly  distributed  over  body. 

Objections. — Hair,  coarse,  harsh,  wavy  or  curly,  not  evenly 
distributed  over  body,  swirls  or  clipped. 

15. — Color. — Black,  with  white  on,  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail  and  an 
occasional  splash  on  arm. 

Objections. — Solid  black  or  black  points,  or  white  spots  on 
body. 

1C. — Size. — Large  for  age.  Boar  two  years  and  over  not  less 
than  450  pounds,  sow  same  age  400  pounds.  Boar  eighteen 
months  350  pounds,  sow  same  age  325  pounds.  Boar  twelve 
months  300  pounds,  sow  same  age  275  pounds.  Boar  and  sow 
c-ix  months,  150  pounds. 

Objections. — Underweight,  coarse,  not  in  good  form  to  fatten. 

17. — Action  and  Style. — Action,  vigorous.  Style,  graceful  and 
attractive. 

Objections. — Dull,  sluggish  and  clumsy. 

18. — Condition. — Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  or  sores, 
soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch,  flesh  fine,  evenly  laid  on  and  free 
from  lumps,  hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  body,  good  feeding 
qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy,  skin  scaly,  acabby  or  harsh,  dry  and 
or  lumpy  flesh,  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair  harsh,  dry  and 
standing  up  from  body,  poor  feeders,  deafness,  partial  or  total. 

19. — Disposition.— Quiet   and    gentle    and   easy   to   handle. 

Objections. — Cross,  restless,  vicious  and  wild. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE  161 

POLAND/CHINA. 


NATIONAL   SCORE   CARD   ADOPTED   BY  THE  NATIONAL 

ASSOCIATION   OF  EXPERT  JUDGES   ON  3 

SWINE,    JUNE,    1897.  (j 

Head   4 

Eyes    2 

Ears    2 

Neck    2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest 12 

Back    and   Loin    14 

Sides  and  Ribs  10 

Belly    and    Flank    4 

Ham   and    Rump    10 

Feet  and  Legs 10 

Tail 1 

Coat   3 

Color 3 

Size 5 

Action  and  Style 3 

Condition    2 

Disposition    2 

Symmetry   of   Points    .' 3 

Total 1<M) 

GENERAL   RULES   FOR   SCORING. 

Rule  1.  Experts  shall  not  use  fractions  other  than  the  decimal 
and  not  above  tenths. 

Rule  2.  Experts  shall  not  indicate  the  score  of  an  animal  by 
amount  of  cut  opposite  the  number  of  points. 

Rule  3.  Experts  shall  at  all  times  call  the  score  of  each  di- 
vision aloud  and  the  attendant  shall  take  the  score  as  called. 

Rule  4. — Should  ties  in  scores  be  indicated  by  footings,  then 
such  ties  shall  be  determined  as  follows:  The  officers  attending 
the  expert  shall  foot  the  score  on  tie  cards  of  the  following  di- 
visions, 7,  8,  11  and  12,  and  the  animal  scoring  the  highest  on 
the  above  divisions  shall  be  awarded  the  first  premium,  and  the 
second  highest  score,  the  second  premium.  Should  there  be  a 
tie  on  the  above  division  then  another  addition  of  the  following 
divisions  should  be  made,  to-wit:  divisions  6  and  9.  Should  a  tie 
exist,  then  division  1  should  be  added  to  above. 

Rule  5.  When  an  expert  who  has  scored  the  entire  class  is 
called  upon  to  award  the  sweepstakes  premium  he  shall  take 
the  highest  scoring  animal  or  animals  in  class  score  for  such 
sweepstakes  premium. 

Rule  6.  Experts  shall  not  be  required  to  score  entries  in 
class  for  sow  and  litter  of  pigs. 

Rule  7.  Experts  shall  not  be  required  to  score  pigs  under 
four  months  of  age. 

Rule  8.  When  animal  is  presented  for  score  and  the  expert 
determines  it  to  be  disqualified  he  shall  call  out  the  disqualifica- 
tions and  the  attendant  shall  indicate  the  same  on  card. 


162  JUDGING   SWINE 

Rule  9.  Experts  are  required  to  keep  themselves  familiar  with 
the  score  card  and  details  of  this  Association. 

Rule  10. — Experts  holding  certificates  issued  by  this  Associa- 
tion are  not  required  by  the  rule^  of  this  Association  to  use  any 
standard  other  than  the,  one  issued  by  this  Association. 

DESCRIPTION    OF   SCORE   CARD   FOR    POLAND-CHINAS   ISSUED    BY 

NATIONAL   ASSOCIATION   OF    EXPERT   JUDGES 

ON    SWINE,    1897. 

Head. — 4. — Head  should  be  broad,  even  and  smooth  oetween 
and  above  the  eyes.  Slightly  dished,  tapering  even  and  gradu- 
ally to  near  the  end  of  the  nose.  Broad  low>er  jaw,  head  in- 
clined to  shortness,  but  not  enough  to  give  the  appearance  of 
stubby  nose.  And  in  male  a  masculine  expression  and  appear- 
ance. 

Objections. — Head  long,  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose  un- 
even and  coarse;  too  large  at  the  muzzle  or  the  head  too  short; 
not  full  or  high  above  the  eyes,  or  too  much  wrinkled  around 
or  above  the  eyes. 

Eyes. — 2. — Full,  clear,  prominent  and  expressive. 

Objections. — Dull  expression,  deep  set  or  obscure.  Sight  im- 
paired by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other  cause. 

Ears!. — 2. — Ears  attached  to  the  head  by  a  short,  firm  knuckle, 
giving  free  and  easy  action.  Standing  up  slightly  at  the  base  to 
within  two-thirds  of  the  tip  where  a  gentle  break  or  drop  should 
occur;  in  size  neither  too  large  nor  too  small,  but  even,  fine,  thin, 
leaf  shape.  Slightly  inclined  outward. 

Objections. — Large,  floppy,  straight,  upright  or  coarse;  knuckle 
long,  letting  the  ear  drop  too  close  to  the  head  and  face,  hindering 
the  animarof  free  use  of  the  ears. 

Neck. — 2. — Short,  wide,  even,  smooth,  well  arched.  Rounding 
and  full  from  poll  to  shoulder,  with  due  regard  to  the  character- 
istics of  the  sex. 

Objections. — Long,  narrow,  thin  and  drooping  from  the  shoul- 
der to  the  poll  with  unevenness  caused  by  wrinkles  or  creases. 

Jowl. — 2. — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth  and  firm,  carrying  full- 
ness back  near  to  point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower 
jaw  so  that  lower  line  will  be  as  low  as  breast  bone  when  head 
is  carried  up  level. 

Objections. — Light,  flabby,  thin  and  w^dge  shaped,  deeply 
wrinkled,  not  drooping  below  line  of  lower  jaw,  and  not  carry- 
ing fullness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket 

Shoulder. — 6. — Broad  and  oval  at  the  top,  showing  evenness 
with  the  back  and  neck,  with  good  width  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom,  and  even  smoothness  extending  well  forward. 

Objections. — Narrow  at  the  top  or  bottom;  not  as  deep  as  the 
body;  uneven  width.  Shields  on  pigs  und,er  eight  months  of 
age,  or  showing  too  much  shield  at  any  age. 

Chest. — 12. — Large,  wide,  deep  and  full;  even  underline  to 
the  shoulder  and  sides  with  no  creases;  giving  plenty  of  room 
for  heart  and  other  organs,  making  a  large  girth  indicating 
much  vitality.  Brisket  smooth,  even  and  broad,  wide  between 
legs  and  extending  well  forward  showing  in  front. 

Objections — Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  bottom,  or 
tucked  in  back  of  the  fore  legs;  showing  too  narrow  between  the 


I  "hoto  by  Hills 

Tamwortb  sow,  KATY  BELL,  a  very  prolific  sow  that  reared  thirty-three  living 
pigs  in  one  year,  while  in  the  herd  at  The  fowa  Agricultural  College 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE   TAMWORTH  SWINE 

*pHIS  ENGLISH  breed  has  been  bred  with  care  during  the  past  sixty  years  with- 
out any  infusions  of  foreign  blood,  consequently  the  representatives  of  this 
breed  are  very  uniform  as  to  color  and  type.  The  color  should  be  a  cherry  red  or  a 
dark  chestnut  and  very  uniform  in  shade  throughout  without  any  black  spots  in  skin 
or  patches  of  hair  other  than  the  color  indicated.  The  form  should  show  the  type 
that  is  desired  for  bacon  production,  this  means  a  hog  that  is  exceedingly  light  in 
offal  with  a  long  trim  body  and  especially  very  smoothly  covered  with  firm  flesh  indi- 
cating a  desirable  mixture  of  fat  and  flesh.  The  head  should  be  slim,  the  snout  fine 
and  not  unduly  long,  the  ear  of  appropriate  size  for  the  head  with  the  neck  sharp 
between  the  ears  and  light,  swelling  easily  to  cover  a  deep  shoulder  smoothly. 
Depth  of  shoulder  is  desirable  but  without  any  roughness.  The  shoulder  should  not 
bulge  out  beyond  the  body  or  the  hips  for  this  detracts  from  the  general  appearance 
of  trimness  and  smoothness  which  is  so  very  desirable.  The  back  should  be  long  and 
strong  with  a  gradually  rising  arch  over  the  shoulder  to  the  loin  and  then  a  corres- 
ponding descending  line  from  there  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  Width  of  the  back  is  not  de- 
manded but  extreme  smoothness  and  an  even  covering  of  firm  flesh  is  absolutely  es- 
sential. The  ribs  should  drop  as  deep  as  possible  making  the  body  appear  from  the  side 
as  if  it  had  abundance  of  depth.  The  loin  is  even  in  width  with  the  shoulder  and  bac  k 
well  covered.  The  hind  quarter  lacks  the  width  characteristic  of  the  lard  hog  as 
this  should  not  be  any  wider  than  the  parts  which  precede  it.  Length  of  ham  or  gam- 
mon is  a  peculiar  feature  which  should  be  looked  for.  A  long  ham,  fleshed  firmly 
towards  the  hock  without  folds  of  fat  is  eminently  desired.  The  leading  features  of 
the  type  throughout  are  length  and  depth  with  trimness  and  smoothness  in  all 
regions.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  186. 


Bti.4 


Essex  sow,  a  prize  wrnner  at  Toronto  Industrial  Exhibition,  owned  by 
Jos.  Featherstone,  Ontario,  Canada.  A  sow  very  typical  of  the  breed,  being 
exceptionally  smooth  and  possessed  of  unusual  quality. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   THE  ESSEX  SWINE 

^HIS  BREED  of  swine  originated  in  the  county  of  Essex,  England,  and  from  this 
it  takes  its  name.  London,  writing  in  1825,  described  the  old  Essex  as  being 
"  up-eared  with  long,  sharp  head,  roach  back;  flat,  long  carcass  and  long  in  the  legs." 
They  were  improved  by  Lord  Weston  who,  in  1830,  purchased  in  Italy  a  Neapolitan 
boar  and  two  sows  and  these  were  crossed  on  the  native  Essex.  Extreme  refinement 
resulted  with  loss  of  size,  constitution  and  fecundity,  but  through  the  after  work  of 
Fisher  Hobbs  these  defects  have  been  largely  overcome.  Some  authorities  (Long) 
claim  that  the  black  Suffolk  pig  bred  in  England  at  the  present  time  is  but  an  im- 
proved Essex;  others  ( Coleman)  assert  that  the  Suffolk  is  a  distinct  breed.  However, 
the  two  now  are  recognized  as  separatetoreeds.  According  to  the  standard  agreed  upon 
by  the  American  association,  the  characteristics  of  the  Essex  are  as  follows:  "(Dolor, 
black  without  any  white  whatever;  face  short  and  dishing;  ears  small,  soft  and 
standing  erect  while  young  but  drooping  slightly  with  increasing  age;  carcass  long, 
broad,  straight  and  deep;  hams  heavy  and  well  let  down;  bone  fine;  hair  ordinarily 
rather  thin,  fattening  qualities  very  superior.  The  type  of  the  Essex  represents  a 
very  compact  hog  of  fine  quality  and  very  stoutly  built;  a  type  which  is  considered 
to  mature  early  and  fatten  easily.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  170. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SWINB     163 

legs;  not  depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulder.  Brisket  uneven, 
narrow,  not  prominent. 

Back  and  Loin. — 14.  Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  car- 
rying same  width  from  shoulder  to  ham,  surface  even,  smooth, 
free  from  lumps,  creases  or  projections,  not  too  long  but  broad 
on  top,  indicating  well  sprung  ribs;  should  not  be  higher  at  hip 
than  at  shoulder  and  should  fill  out  at  junction  with  side  so  that 
a  straightedge  placed  along  at  top  of  side  will  touch  all  the 
way  from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of  ham,  should  De  shorter 
than  lower  belly  line. 

Objections. — Narrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders,  swayed  or 
hollow,  dropping  below  a  straight  line;  humped  or  wrinkled;  too 
long  or  sun-fish  shaped;  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed  or  hump- 
ed up;  surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy  or  uneven,  width  at  side 
not  as  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — 10. — Sides  full,  firm  and  deep,  free  from 
wrinkles;  carrying  size  down  to  belly;  even  from  ham  to  shoul- 
der; ribs  of  good  length,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections. — Flat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched,  net  as  full  at  bottom 
as  top;  drawn  in  at  shoulder  so  as  to  produce  a  crease  or  pinch- 
ed and  tucked  up  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham;  uneven  sur- 
face; ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank. — 4. — Belly  broad,  straight  and  full,  indicat- 
ing capacity  and  room,  being  about  the  same  or  on  a  level  at 
the  flank  with  the  under  chest  line.  Underline  straight,  or 
nearly  so,  and  free  from  flabby  appearance. 

Objections. — Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent  looseness  in 
the  make-up.  Pinched  up  in  the  flank  or  flanked  too  hight. 

Ham  and  Rump. — 10. — Hams  broad,  full,  deep  and  long  from 
rump  to  hock.  Fully  developed  above  and  below,  bein^  wide  at 
the  point  of  the  hip,  carrying  width  well  down  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  hams.  Fleshy,  plump,  rounding  fullness  perceptible 
everywhere.  Rump  rounding  and  gradually  sloping  from  the  loin 
to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Broad  and  well  developed  all  along  from 
loin  and  gradually  rounding  to  the  buttock;  lower  front  part  ot 
ham  should  be  full  and  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh.  Even 
width  of  ham  and  rump  with  the  back,  loin  and  body.  Even  a 
greater  width  as  to  females  not  objectionable. 

Objections. — Ham  short,  narrow,  too  round  or  slim.  Not  filled 
out  above  or  below,  or  unshapely  for  deep  meat;  not  as  wide  as 
the  body,  back  or  loin  too  tapering  or  small.  Rump  narrow  or 
pointed,  not  plump  or  well  filled  or  too  steep  from  loin  to  the 
tail. 

Legs  and  Feet. — 10. — Legs  medium  length,  straight,  set  well 
apart  and  squarely  under  body,  tapering,  well  muscled  and  wide 
above  knee  and  hock;  below  hock  and  knee  round  and  tapering, 
capable  of  sustaining  weight  of  animal  in  full  flesh  without 
breaking  down;  bone  firm  and  of  fine  texture;  pasterns  short 
and  nearly  upright.  Feet  firm,  short,  tough  and  free  from  de- 
fects. 

Objections. — Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked;  muscles  small 
above  hock  and  knee;  bone  large,  coars-e;  as  large  at  foot  as 
above  knee;  pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked  or  weak;  the  hocks 
turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line;  legs  too  close  together;  hoofs 
long,  slim  and  w.eak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked  or  unable  to 
bear  up  weight  of  animal  without  breaking  down. 


164  JUDGING   SWINE 

Tail. — 1. — Tail  of  medium  length  and  size,  smooth  and  taper- 
ing well  and  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections. — Coarse  and  long  without  a  curl;  or  short,  crook- 
ed or  stubby;  or  too  small,  fine,  even,  not  tapering. 

Coat. — 3. — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  laying  close  to  and  cover* 
ing  the  body  well;  not  clipped,  evenly  distributed  over  the  body. 

Objections. — Bristles,  hair  coarse,  harsh,  thin,  wavy  or  curly; 
swirls,  standing  up,  ends  of  hair  split  and  brown,  not  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  all  of  the  body  except  belly.  Clipped  coats  should 
be  cut  1.5  points. 

Color. — 3. — Black  with  six  (6)  white  points:  Tip  of  tail,  four 
white  feet  and  white  in  face,  on  the  nose  or  on  the  point  of  low- 
er jaw.  All  to  be  perceptible  without  close  -examination.  Splashes 
of  white  on  the  jaw,  legs  or*  flank  or  a  few  spots  of  white  on  the 
body  not  objectionable. 

Objections. — Solid  black,  white  mixed  or  sandy  spots.  Spec- 
kled with  white  hairs  over  the  body;  mottled  face  of  white 
and  black;  hair  mixed,  making  a  grizzly  appearance. 

Size. — 5. — Large  for  age.  Condition,  vigor  and  vitality  to  be 
considered.  There  should  be  a  difference  between  breeding 
animals  and  those  kept  or  fitted  for  the  show  of  at  least  25  per 
cent,  in  size.  In  show  condition,  or  when  fat,  a  two-year-old 
boar  should  not  weigh  less  than  six  hundred  (600)  pounds,  and 
a  sow  not  less  than  five  hundred  (500)  pounds.  Boar  one  year 
and  over,  four  hundred  (400)  pounds;  sow  three  hundred  and 
fifty  (350)  pounds.  Boar  eighteen  months,  five  hundred  (500) 
pounds;  sow,  four  hundred  and  fifty  (450)  pounds.  Boar  and 
sows  six  months  old,  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  (160) 
pounds.  All  hogs  in  just  fair  breeding  condition,  one-fourth 
less  for  size.  The  keeping  and  chance  that  a  young  hog  has 
cuts  quite  a  figure  in  his  size  and  should  be  considered,  other 
points  being  equal.  Fine  quality  and  size  combined,  are  the  de- 
sirable. 

Objections. — Overf-gfrown;  'coarse,  flabby,  loose  appearance. 
Gangling,  hard  to  fatten;  too  fine,  undersize;  short,  stubby, 
inclined  to  chubby  fatness.  Not  a  hardy  robust  animal. 

Action  and  Style. — 3. — Action  vigorous,  easy  and  graceful. 
Style  attractive;  high  carriage;  and  in  males  testicles  should 
be  prominent  and  of  about  the  same  size,  and  yet  not  too  large 
and  pouchy. 

Objections. — Clumsy,  slow,  awkward  movement;  low  carriage; 
waddling  or  twisting-  walk.  A  seeming  tired  off1  lazy  appear- 
ance; not  stand  erect  and  firm. 

Condition. — 2. — Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  and  sores; 
soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  flesh  fine;  evenly  laid  on  and 
free  from  lumps  and  wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  to 
body;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy,  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  scabby  or  harsh, 
fiabbiness  or  lumpy  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair  harsh 
dry  and  standing  up  from  body;  poor  feeders;  deafness,  partial 
or  total. 

Disposition. — 2. — Lively,  easily  handled  and  seemingly  kind, 
responsive  to  good  treatment. 

Objections. — Cross,  sluggish,  restless,  wild  or  of  a  vicious 
turn. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS    OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  165 

Symmetry  or  Adaptation  of  Points. — 3. — The  adaptation  of 
all  the  points,  size  and  style  combined  to  make  the  desired  type 
or  model. 


POLAND.CHINA  SWINE. 


NATIONAL   BREEDERS   SCALE  OF  POINTS   AS   ADOPTED   BY 
THE   NATIONAL   POLAND-CHINA   BREEDERS   ASSO- 
CIATION  AT   THE   ANNUAL   MEETING   HELD 
IN    CHICAGO    IN    NOVEMBER,   1886. 

Published  in  the  Poland-China    Record,    Dayton,   Ohio,  •£ 

Vol.  XVIII,   1896,  and  American  Poland-China  Record,  » 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  Vol.  XI,  1890.  CJ 

Color — Dark  spotted  or  black  3 

Head — Small,  broad,  face  slightly  dished 5 

Ears — Fine  and  drooping  2 

Jowl — Neat    and   full 2 

Neck— Short,  full,  slightly  arched    3 

Brisket— Full    3 

Shoulder — Broad  and  deep  6 

Girth-    Around   Heart   10 

Back — Straight  and   broad    7 

Sides — Deep  and  full 6 

Ribs — Well   sprung    7 

Loin — Broad   and   strong    7 

Belly — Wide  and  straight   4 

Flank— Well  let  down - 3 

Ham — Broad,  full  and  deep 10 

Ta'i  I — Tapering  and  not  coarse   2 

Limbs — Strong,    straight    and    tapering    7 

Coat— Thick  and  soft   3 

Action — Prompt,  easy  and  graceful   5 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  points  to  each  other. .  5 

Total    100 

DETAILED   DESCRIPTION. 

Color — Black  or  dark  spotted,  with  white  points.  (Sandy 
spots  and  speckled  color  shall  not  argue  impurity  of  blood,  but 
are  not  desirable.) 

Objections. — Solid  black  or  with  more  sandy  than  black  hairs, 
over  body. 

Head. — Short,  broad  between  eyes,  and  nicely  tapering  from 
eyes  to  point  of  nose;  face  slightly  dished,  cheeks  full. 

Objections. — Head  coarse,  long  and  narrow;  face  too  much 
dished;  snout  coarse  and  thick. 

Ears. — Drooping,  fine  and  silky  ;  pointing  forward  and  a  little 
outward;  well  proportioned  to  size  of  body. 

Objections. — Too  large  and  coarse;  thick,  lopping;  lying  too 
near  the  face;  stiff,  erect  or  too  round. 

Jowl. — Full,  firm  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  well  back  to 
shoulder  and  brisket. 

Objections. — Flabby;  light;  thin  in  cheeks,  tucking  up  under 
the  neck. 


166  JUDGING   SWINE 

Neck. — Full,   deep,   short,   and    slightly    arched. 

Objections. — Long,  flat;   lacking  in  fullness  or  depth. 

Brisket. — Full,  well  let  down,  extending  well  forward  and  on 
line  witn  belly. 

Objections. — Narrow  or  tucked  up. 

Shoulders. — Broad,  deep;  thickness  in  proportion  to  sides 
and  hams,  full  and  even  on  top. 

Objections. — Lacking   in   depth   or   width;    thick   beyond   the 
lines  of  the     sides  and  hams;   blade  too  prominent. 
»GirtH      Around  Heart. — Full   back   of    shoulders,  ribs    extending 
well  down;  wide  and  full  back  of  fore  legs. 

Objections. — Less  than  flank  measure  or  length  of  body  from 
top  of  head  to  root  of  tail,  or  creased  back  of  shoulders. 

Back. — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying  width  well 
back  to  hams,  and  of  medium  length. 

Objections. — Narrow,  creasing  back  of  shoulders;  narrow 
across  loins;  swayed;  too  long;  sunfish  shaped. 

Loin. — Broad,  strong  and  full. 

Objections. — Narrow,  weak. 

Sides. — Full,  deep;  carrying  sides  well  down  and  back. 

Objections. — Too  round  or  flat;    shallow  or  thin  at  the  flank. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung  and  long;   carrying  fullness  well  back. 

Objections. — Too  flat,  curve  of  the  ribs  too  short. 

Belly. — Wide  and  straight. 

Objections. — Sagging,  narrow. 

Flank. — Well  let  down  and  full. 

Objections. — Thin  and  tucked  in;  cut  up  too  high. 

Ham. — Full,  broad,  deep,  holding  width  and  coming  well  over 
back. 

Objections. — Narrow,  short,  too  steep  at  the  rump  and  cut  up 
too  high  in  the  crotch. 

Tail. — Well  set  on;  small,  smooth  and  well  tapered. 

Objections. — Coarse,  large,  too  prominent  at  the  root. 

Limbs. — Medium  length;  well  set  apart  and  well  tapered;  bone 
firm  and  flinty;  not  coarse;  muscles  full  above  knee  and  hock; 
pastern  short;  foot  short. 

Objections. — Long,  ,slim,  coarse,  crooked,  muscles  light;  pas 
tern  long,  slim  or  flat ;  feet  long  or  sprawling. 

Coat. — Fine,  thick,  and  covering  the  body  well. 

Objections. — Coarse,  bristly,  harsh  and  wiry. 

Action. — Easy,  prompt,  fine  and  graceful. 

Objections. — Dull,  sluggish,  clumsy. 

Symmetrv. — A  harmonious  combination  of  the  foregoing  scale 
of  points. 

Objections. — Too  much  developed  in  some  points  and  lacking 
in  others. 

SERIOUS   OBJECTIONS. 

Form — Small  growth;  upright  ears;  .small,  cramped  rhest; 
crease  back  or  shoulders,  so  as  to  be  readily  seen;  delormed 
and  badly  crooked  legs;  feet  broken  down  so  that  the  animal 
walks  on  pastern  joints  and  dew-claws. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Condition —  Excessive  fat;  barren;  deformed;  r.nsound  or 
diseased;  ridging  or  one-sided. 

Score — A  score  or  less  than  sixty  points  of  the  standard. 
Pedigree — Lack    of    eligibility    to    record. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE  167 

POLAND'CHINA  SWINE. 


CENTRAL   ASSOCIATION   SCALE  OF  POINTS. 

Published  in  the  Central  Poland-China  Record,  Indian-  |j 
apolis,  Ind.,  Vol.  XII,  1891,  and  Standard  Poland-China  g 
Record,  Maryville,  Mo.,  Vol.  XIII,  1894.  CJ 

Head  and   Face    ./ 4 

Eyes    2 

Ears 2 

Neck    2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders    6 

Chest 12 

Back   and    Loii>    15 

Sides  and    Ribs    8 

Belly  and  Flank 6 

Ham  and   Rump 10 

Feet  and  Legs 10 

Tail    1 

Coat   2 

Color T 2 

Size    5 

Action   and    Style    i 4 

Condition    4 

Disposition    i 3 

Total    100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form — Upright  ears;  small,  cramped  chest,  crease  back  of 
shoulders  and  over  the  back  so  as  to  cause  a  depression  in 
back  easily  noticed;  deformed  or  badly  crooked  legs1.;  feet 
broken  down,  so  that  the  animal  walks  on  pastern  joints. 

Size — China  build,  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough  for  age. 

Condition — Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  deformed;  seriously 
diseased;  total  blindness,  caused  by  defective  eyes,  or  by  rea- 
son of  fat  or  loose  and  wrinkled  skin  over  the  eyes. 

Score — Less  than  sixty  points. 

Pedigree — Not  eligible  to  record. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  short  and  wide;  cheeks  full;  jaws 
broad;  forehead  high  and  wide;  face  short;  smooth;  wide  be- 
tween the  eyes;  tapering  from  eyes  to  point  of  nose  and  slight- 
ly dished;  surface  even  and  regular. 

Objections. — Head  long;  narrow;  coarse;  forehead  low  and 
narrow  or  contracted;  lower  jaw  extending  beyond  upper;  face 
long,  straight  and  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose  coarse,  thick 
or  crooked,  ridgy  or  dished  as  much  as  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes. — Large,  prominent;  bright;  lively,  clear  and  free  from 
wrinkled  or  fat  surroundings. 

Objections. — Small,  dull,  blood-shot,  deep  set  or  obscure,  vis- 
ion impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other  cause. 

Ears. — Small;  thin;  soft;  silky;  attached  to  the  head  by  a 
short  and  small  knuckle;  tips  pointing  forward  and  slightly  out- 


168  JUDGING   SWINE 

ward,   and  the    forward    half   drooping   gracefully;    fully   under 
control  of  animal;  both  of  same  size,  position  and  shape. 

Objections. — Large;  Straight;  stiff;  coarse;  thick;  round; 
long  or  large  knuckle,  drooping  close  to  face,  swinging  and 
flabby;  difference  in  form,  size  or  position. 

Neck. — Wide;  deep;  short,  and  nicely  arched  at  top,  from 
poll  of  head  to  shoulder. 

Objections. — Long;  narrow;  thin;  flat  on  top;  not  extending 
down  to  breast  bone;  tucked  up. 

Jowl.)— Full;  broad;  deep;  smooth  and  firm;  carrying  fullness 
back  near  to  point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower  jaw, 
so  that  lower  line  will  be  as  low  as  breast  bone  when  head  is 
carried  up  level. 

Objections. — Light;  flabby;  thin;  wedge  shaped;  deeply  wrin- 
kled; not  drooping  below  line  of  lower  jaw,  and  not  carry- 
ing fullness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulders. — Broad;  deep  and  full;  not  extending  above  line 
of  back,  and  being  as  wide  on  top  as  back;  carrying  size  down 
to  line  of  belly  and  having  good  lateral  width. 

Objections. — Narrow;  not  same  depth  as  body;  narrow  on  top 
or  bottom  or  extending  above  line  of  back;  less  than  body  in 
breadth  at  top  or  bottom  portions,  or  lacking  in  lateral  width; 
shields  on  boars  under  eight  months  of  age,  or  large,  heavy 
shields  on  hogs  under  eighteen  months  of  age. 

Chest. — Large;  wide;  deep;  roomy,  indicating  plenty  of  room 
for  vital  organs,  and  making  a  large  girth  just  back  of  shoul- 
ders; the  breast  bone  extending  forward  so  as  to  show  slightly 
in  front  of  legs  and  extending  in  a  straight  line  back  to  end  of 
breast  bone;  showing  width  of  not  less  than  six  inches  be- 
tween fore  legs  in  a  large,  full  grown  hog. 

Objections. — Flat;  pinched;  narrow  at  top  or  at  either  end 
of  breast  bone;  breast  bone  crooked  or  not  extending  slightly 
in  front  of  fore  legs. 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad;  straight;  or  slightly  arched;  car- 
rying same  width  from  shoulder  to  ham;  surface  (even;  smooth, 
free  from  lumps,  creases  or  projections;  not  too  long,  but  broad 
on  top,  indicating  well  sprung  ribs;  should  not  be  higher  at  hip 
than  at  shoulder  and  should  fill  out  at  junction,  with  side  so 
that  a  straight  edge  placed  along  top  of  side  will  touch  all  the 
way  from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of  ham;  should  be  shorter 
than  the  lower  belly  line. 

Objections. — Narrow;  creased  back  of  shoulders;  swayed  or 
hollow;  dropping  below  a  straight  line;  humped  or  wrinkled; 
too  long,  or  sunfish  shaped;  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed  or 
humped  up;  surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy  or  uneven;  width  at 
side  not  as  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full;  smooth;  firm  and  deep;  carrying 
size  down  to  belly  and  evenly  from  ham  to  shoulder;  ribs  long, 
strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections. — Flat;  thin;  flabby;  pinched;  not  as  full  at  bottom 
as  top;  drawn  in  at  shoulders  soi  as  to  produce  a  crease  or 
pinched  and  tucked  up,  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham;  lumpy 
or  uneven  surface;  ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank. —  Wide,  straight  and  full  and  drooping  as 
low  at  flank  as  bottom  of  chest;  back  of  fore  leg  making  a 
straight  line  from  fore  legs  to  hind  legs;  flank  full  and  out  even 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SWINE     169 

with  surrounding  portions  of  body;  the  belly  at  that  point 
dropping  down  on  a  line  with  lower  line  of  chest;  the  loose 
skin  connecting  ham  and  belly  being  on  a  line  even  with  bot- 
tom of  side. 

Objections. — Belly  narrow;  pinched;  sagging  or  flabby.  Flank 
tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Hams  broad;  full,  long  and  wide.  They 
should  be  as  wide  at  point  of  the  hip  as  the  swell  of  the  ham. 
Buttocks  large  and  full;  should  project  beyond  and  come  down 
upon  and  full  between  the  hocks.  The  lower  front  part  of  the 
ham  should  be  full  and  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh  and  a 
gradual  rounding  toward  the  hock.  Rump  should  have  a  round- 
ing slope  from  loin  to  root  of  tail;  same  width  as  back  and  fill- 
ing out  full  on  each  side  of,  and  above  the  tail. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow;  short;  thin;  not  projecting  beyond 
and  coming  down  to  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch  or  twist; 
lacking  in  fullness  at  top  or  bottom;  lacking  In  width  from 
stifle  straight  back;  lower  fore  part  thin  and  flat;  straight  from 
root  of  tail  to  hock;  buttocks  light,  thin  or  flabby.  Rump  flat, 
narrow  and  peaked  at  root  of  tail;  too  steep. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  medium  length;  straight;  set  well  apart 
and  squarely  under  body;  tapering;  well  muscled  and  wide 
above  knee  and  hock;  below  hock  and  knee  round  and  taper- 
ing, capable  of  sustaining  weight  of  animal  in  full  flesh 
without  breaking  down;  bone  firm  and  of  fine  texture;  pasterns 
short  and  nearly  upright.  Feet  firm;  short;  tough  and  free 
from  defects. 

Objections. — Legs  long;  slim;  coarse;  crooked;  muscles 
small  above  hock  and  knee;  bone  large,  coarse,  as  large  at 
foot  as  above  knee;  pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked  or  weak; 
the  hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line;  legs  too  close 
together;  hoofs  long,  slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked 
or  unable  to  bear  up  weight  of  animal  without  breaking  down. 

Tail. — Well  set  on;  small,  smooth,  tapering  and  carried  in  a 
curl. 

Objections. — Coarse;  long;  crooked  or  hanging  straight  down 
like  a  rope. 

Coat. — Fine;  straight;  smooth;  laying  close  to  and  covering 
the  body  well;  not  clipped;  evenly  distributed  over  body. 

Objections. — Bristles;  hair  coarse;  harsh;  thin;  wavy  or  cur- 
ly; swirls;  standing  up;  ends  of  hair  split  and  brown;  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body  except  belly.  Clipped 
coats  should  be  cut  1.5  points. 

Color. — Black  with  white  in  face  or  on  lower  jaw;  white  on 
feet  and  tip  of  tail,  and  a  few  small,  clear  white  spots  on  body 
not  objectionable. 

Objections. — Solid  black,  more  than  one-forth  white;  sandy 
hairs  or  spots;  a  grizzled  or  speckled  appearance. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition;  boars  two  years  old  and 
over,  if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds. 
Sows  same  age  and  condition  not  less  than  450  pounds.  Boars 
eighteen  months  old,  in  good  condition,  not  less  than  400  pounds; 
sows,  350  pounds.  Boars  twelve  months,  not  less  than  300 
pounds;  sow,s,  300  pounds.  Boar  and  sow  six  months,  not  less 
than  150  pounds.  Other  ages  in  proportion. 


170  JUDGING   SWINE 

Objections. — Overgrown;  coarse;  gangling,  or  hard  to  fatten 
at  any  age. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  vigorous;  easy;  quick  and  grace- 
ful. Style  attractive;  high  carriage;  and  in  males  testicles 
should  be  of  same  size,  carriage;  readily  seen  and  yet  not  too 
large. 

Objections. — Slow;  dull;  clumsy;  awkward;  difficulty  in  get- 
ting up  when  down;  low  carriage;  wabbling  walk.  In  males 
testicles  not  easily  seen,  not  of  same  size  or  carriage,  too  large 
or  only  one  showing 

Condition. — Healthy;  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales,  or  sores; 
soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  flesh  fine,  evenly  laid  on  and  free 
from  lumps  or  wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  clO'se  to  body; 
good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy;  skin  scaly,  wrinkly,  scabby  or  harsh, 
flabbiness  or  lumpy  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair 
harsh,  dry  and  standing  up  from  body;  poor  feeder;  deafness, 
partial  or  total. 

Disposition. — Quiet,   gentle   and  easily  handled. 

Objections. —  Cross,  restless,  vicious  or  wild. 

ESSEX  SWINE. 


c 

SCALE   OF   POINTS   ADOPTED    BY  AMERICAN    ESSEX    ASSOCIA-        g 
TION,    VOL.  II,  IMPROVED   ESSEX    SWINE  RECORD,   1893.  (J 

Color — Black  2 

Head — Small,  broad  and  face  dished    3 

Ears — Fine,  erect,  slightly  drooping  with  age 2 

Jowl — Full  and  neat    1 

Neck — Short,  full,  well  arched    3 

Shoulders — Broad    and    deep     7 

Girth  Around   Heart   6 

Back — Straight,   bread   and  level    12 

Sides — Deep  and  full 6 

Ribs — Well  sprung    7 

Loin — Broad  and    strong    12 

Flank — Well  let  down  

Ham — Broad,  full   and   deep 12 

Tail — Medium,  fine,  and  curled   

Legs — Fine,  straight  and  tapering 

Feet — Small    

Hair — Fine  and  silky,  free  from  bristles  

Action — Easy  and   graceful    

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other...  10 

Total    .  100 


Pen  of  two  Berkshire  pigs.  Exhibited  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Firckert,  of  Burton, 
Mere,  Wiltshire.  Winners  of  the  challenge  cup  for  the  best  pen  of  two  pigs, 
at  the  Smithfield  Show  England,  1898. 


Pure  bred  Tamworth  sow,  AGINCOUBT  QUEEN.  The  property  of  Mr.  John 
Bell,  Amber,  Ontario,  Canada.  Agincourt  Queen  was  farrowed  February  9, 
1896=  Photo  was  taken  May  26, 1897. 


Thin  Bind  Sow,  BEAUTY  37,  owned  by  John  S.  Phelps,  Lexington,  Kentucity. 


Berkshire  sow,  HIGHCLERE  COUNTESS  IX,  of  Hood  Farm,  and  her  litter 
of  nine  pigs  at  three  weeks  old,  by  Wantage  King  of  Hood  Farm.  First  prize 
winner  at  numerous  fairs  in  1898.  Two  of  the  pigs  are  under  the  others,  the 
white  brush  of  one  showing  between  the  second  and  third  from  the  left  end, 
and  the  other  in  the  same  position  from  tho  other  end.  Owned  by  Boor* 
Farm,  Lowell.  Massachusetts. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS    OF   EXCELLENCE    FOR    SWINE  171 

CHESTER  WHITE  SWINE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  AS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  STANDARD  CHESTER 

WHITE  RECORD  ASSOCIATION.       CHESTER  WHITE  ^ 

RECORD,  VOL.  Ill,   1892. 

The  description  which  follows  is  similar  to  that  adopted     g 
by  the  National  Association  of  Expert  Judges.  (j 

Htad   and    Face    4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck    2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders    6 

Chest    9 

Back  and   Loin    15 

Sides    and    Rib     8 

Belly   and   Flank    6 

Ham   and   Rump    10 

Feet  and  Legs   30 

Tail 1 

Coat 2 

Color    5 

Size    5 

Action  and  Style    4 

Condition    4 

Disposition    3 

Total    100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Upright  ears;  small  cramped  chest;  crease  around 
back  of  shoulders  and  over  the  back,  causing  a  depression  easily 
noticed;  feet  broken  down  causing  the  animal  to  walk  on 
pastern  joints;  deformed  or  badly  crooked  legs. 

Size. — Chuffy,  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough  for  age. 

Condition. — Squabby  fat;  deformed,  seriously  deformed;  bar- 
renness; total  blindness. 

Score. — Less  than  sixty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

Color. — Black  or  sandy  spots  in  hair. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  short  and  wide;  cheeks  neat  but  not 
too  full;  jaws  broad  and  strong;  forehead  medium,  high  and 
wide.  Face  short  and  smooth;  wide  between  the  eyes;  nose 
neat  and  tapering  and  slightly  dished. 

Objections. — Head  long,  narrow  and  coarse;  forehead  low 
and  narrow;  jaws  contracted  and  weak.  Face  long,  narrow  and 
straight;  nose  coarse,  clumsy  or  dished  like  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes. — Large,  bright,  clear  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  sur- 
roundings. 

Objections. — Small,  deep  or  obscure;  vision  impaired  in  any 
way. 

Ears. — (Mediumi  size;  not  too  thick;  soft;  attached  to  the 
head  so  as  not  to  look  clumsy :  nointine1  forward  and  slightly 


172  JUDGING  SWINE 

outward;    fully   under  the  control  of  the   animal  and  drooping 
£0  as  to  give  a  graceful  appearance. 

Objections. — Large;  upright;  coarse;  thick;  round;  too  small; 
drooping  too  close  to  the  face;  animal  not  being  able  to  con- 
trol them. 

Neck. — Wide;    deep;   short  and   nicely  arched. 

Objections. — Long,  narrow;  thin;  flat  on  top;  tucked  up;  not 
extending  down  to  breast  bone. 

Jowl. — Full;  smooth,  neat  and  firm;  carrying  fullness  back 
to  shoulder  and  brisket  when  the  head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections. — Light;  too  large  and  flabby;  rough  and  deeply 
wrinkled;  not  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulder. — Broad,  deep  and  full,  extending  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  side,  and  carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly. 

Objections. — Narrow  at  top  or  bottom,  not  full  nor  same  depth 
as  body;  extending  above  line  of  back;  shields  on  boars  too 
coarse  and  prominent. 

Chest. — Large;  deep  and  roomy  so  as  not  to  cramp  vital  or- 
gans; full  in  girth  around  the  heart;  the  breast  bone  extend- 
ing forward  so  as  to  show  slightly  in  front  of  legs,  and  let 
down  so  as  to  be  even  with  line  of  belly,  showing  a  width 
of  not  less  than  7  inches  between  fore  legs  of  a  full  grown  hog. 

Objections. — Narrow;  pinched;  heart  girth  less  than  flank 
girth;  too  far  let  down  between  fore  legs;  breast  bone  crooked 
or  too  short. 

Back  and  Loin. — Back  broad  on  top;  straight  or  slightly 
arched;  uniform  width;  smcoth;  free  from  lumps  or  rolls; 
shorter  than  lower  belly  line;  same  height  and  width  at  shoul- 
der as  at  ham;  loin  wide  and  full. 

Obje:tions. — Back  narrow;  creased  back  of  shoulders;  sun- 
fished  shape;  humped;  swayed;  too  long  or  lumpy  rolls;  un- 
even in  width;  loin  narrow,  depressed  or  humped. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full;  smooth;  deep;  carrying  size 
down  to  belly;  even  with  line  of  ham  and  shoulder;  ribs  long; 
well  sprung  at  top  or  bottom,  giving  hog  a  square  form. 

Objections. — Flat;  thin;  flabby;  compressed  at  bottom; 
shrunken  at  shoulder  and  ham;  uneven  surface;  .ribs  flat  ana 
too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank. — Same  width  as  back;  full,  making  a 
straight  line  and  dropping  as  low  at  flank  as  at  bottom  of  chest; 
line  of  lower  edge  running  parallel  with  sides;  flank  full  and 
even  with  body. 

Objections. — Belly  narrow;  pinched;  sagging  or  flabby;  flank 
thin,  tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

Ham  and  Rump. — Ham  broad;  full;  long,  wide  and  deep; 
admitting  of  no  swells;  buttock  full;  neat  and  clean,  thus  avoid- 
ing flabbiness;  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh,  nicely  tapering 
towards  the  hock;  rump  should  have  a  slightly  rounding  shape 
from  loin  to  root  of  tail;  same  width  as  back,  making  an  even 
line  with  sides. 

Objections. — Hams  narrow;  short;  not  filled  out  to  stifle;  too 
much  cut  up  in  crotch  or  twist;  not  coming  down  to  hock  but- 
tocks flabby;  rump  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  steep,  sharp  or 
peaked  at  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet.— Legs  short;  straight;  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  body;  bone  of  good  size;  firm;  well  muscled; 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR   SWINE  173 

wide  above  knee  and  hock;  below  knee  and  hock  round  and 
tapering,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease; 
pastern  short  and  nearly  upright;  feet  short,  firm,  tough  and 
free  from  defects. 

Objections. — Legs  too  short,  long,  slim,  crooked,  too  coarse; 
too  close  together;  weak  muscles  above  hock  and  knee;  bone 
large  and  coarse  without  taper;  pasterns  long;  crooked,  slim 
like  a  deer's;  hoofs  long,  slim,  weak;  toes  spreading,  crooked 
or  turned  up. 

Tail. — Small;  smooth;  tapering,  well  set  on,  root  slightly 
covered  with  flesh;  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections. — Coarse;  long;  clumsy;  set  too  high  or  too  low; 
hanging  like  a  rope. 

Coat. — Fine;  straight  or  wavy;  evenly  distributed  and  cov- 
ering the  body  well;  nicely  clipped  coats  no  objection. 

Objections. — Bristles;  hair  coarse;  thin;  standing  up;  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  the  body  except  belly. 

Color. — White  (blue  spots  or  black  specks  in  skin  shall  not 
argue  impurity  of  blood.) 

Objections. — Color  any  other  than  white. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition;  boars  two  years  old  and 
over,  if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds. 
Sow  same  age  and  condition,  not  less  than  450  pounds.  Boars 
18  months  old  in  good  flesh  should  weigh  not  less  than  400 
pounds.  Sows  350.  Boars  12  months  old  not  less  than  300 
pounds.  Sows  300.  Boars  and  sows  6  months  old,  not  less 
than  150  pounds  each,  and  other  ages  in  proportion. 

Objections. — Overgrown;   coarse;   uncouth;  hard  to  fatten. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  easy  and  graceful;  style  attrac- 
tive; high  carriage;  in  males  testicles  should  be  readily  seen; 
same  size  and  carriage. 

Objections. — Sluggish;  awkward  low  carriage;  wabbling  walk; 
in  males  testicles  not  easily  seen;  not  of  same  size  or  carriage, 
or  only  one  showing. 

Condition. — Healthy,  skin  clear  and  bright;  free  from  scurf 
and  sores;  flesh  fine  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  evenly  laid 
on  and  free  from  lumps;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy;  skin  scaly,  scabby  or  harsh;  flesh 
lumjpy  or  flabby;  hair  harsh,  dry  and  standing  up  from  body; 
poor  feeders;  total  deafness. 

Disposition. — Quiet;  gentle  and  easily  handled;  with  ambi- 
tion enough  to  look  out  for  themselves  if  neglected. 

Objections. — Cross;   restless;    vicious   or  wild;   no  ambition. 


174  JUDGING  SWINE 

CHESTER  WHITE  SWINE. 

'"    SCALE  OF  POINTS  AS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  CHESTER  WHITE 

RECORD  ASSOCIATION  AT  THEIR  ANNUAL  MEETING,  ^ 

JAN.,  1885,  AND  REVISED  JAN.,  l888.       PUBLISHED 
TODD'S  IMPROVED  CHESTER  WHITE  SWINE 

RECORD,  VOL.  IV,  1891.  CJ 

Head — Small,  broad,  slightly  dished 5 

Eye — Large  and  bright   2 

Ear — Thin,    fine    and    drooping    »  2 

Jowl — Neat  and  full   3 

Neck — Short,  full  and  slightly  arched 3 

Brisket — Full   and   deep    3 

Shoulder — Broad  and  deep    ,    6 

Girth  Around   Heart 10 

Back — Straight  and  broad   7 

Sides — Deep  and  full   G 

Ribs — Well    sprung 7 

Belly — Wide   and  straight    4 

Girth    Around    Flank    10 

Ham — Broad,  full  and  deep   10 

Limbs — Strong,  straight  and  neat  7 

Tail — Tapering,  and  not  coarse   2 

Coat — Fine  and  thick   3 

Color — White    1 

Action — Prompt,  easy  and  graceful 5 

Symmetry    4 

Total    100 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head — Short;  broad  between  the  eyes,  and  nicely  tapering 
from  eyes  to  point  of  nose;  face  slightly  dished;  cheeks  full. 

Objections.— Head  coarse,  long  and  narrow;  face  straight  or 
too  much  dished;  snout  coarse  or  thick. 

Eye. — Large,  bright,  and  free  from  overgrowing  fat. 

Objections. — Small,  dim,  or   hidden   under   protruding  fat. 

Ear. — Drooping;  thin;  pointing  outward  and  forward;  well 
proportioned  to  size  of  body. 

Objections. — Too  large  and  coarse;  thick,  lopping;  lying  too 
near  the  face;  stiff,  erect,  or  too  small. 

Jowl. — Full,  firm  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  well  back  to 
neck  and  brisket. 

Objections. — Flabby;  light;  thin  in  cheek;  tucking  up  under 
the  neck. 

Neck. — Full,  deep,  short,  and  well  arched. 

Objections. — Long;  flat;  lacking  in  fullness  or  depth. 

Brisket. — Full;  strong;  well  let  down;  extending  well  for- 
ward, and  on  line  of  the  belly. 

Objections. — Narrow,  or  tucked  up. 

Shoulder — Broad;  deep;  thickness  in  proportion  to  the  side 
and  ham;  full  and  even  en  top. 

Objections. — Thick  beyond  the  line  of  side  and  ham;  lacking 
in  depth  or  width;  blade  prominent,  or  extending  above  the 
line  of  the  back. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS    OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  175 

Girth  Around  the  Heart. — Full  back  of  shoulders;  ribs  ex- 
tending well  down;  wide  and  full  back  of  fore  legs. 

Objections. — Less  than  flank  or  length  of  body  from  top  of 
the  head  to  root  of  the  tail. 

Back. — Bread,  straight,  or  slightly  arched,  carrying  width 
well  back  to  the  hams,  and  of  medium  length. 

Objections. — Narrow;  sinking  back  of  shoulders;  narrow 
across  the  loin;  swayed;  too  long;  sunfish  shaped. 

Sides. — Full;  deep;  carrying  weight  and  thickness  well  down 
and  back. 

Objections. — Too  round  or  flat;  shallow  or  thin  at  the  flank. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung,  carrying  fullness  well  back  and  de'ep. 

Objections. — Too  flat;  curve  of  rib  too  short;  tucking  in  at 
bottom;  sagging  about  loin. 

Loin. — Broad,  strong  and  full. 

Objections. — Narrow;   poorly  ribbed  up;  weak. 

Belly. — Wide  and  straight;  width  approximating  that  of  the 
back. 

Objections. — Sagging;    narrow;    skin  coarse,  harsh  and  thick. 

Girth  Around  Flank. — Flank  well  let  down  and  full;  loin 
broad,  strong  and  full;  measurement  of  flank  girth  equal  to 
heart  girth. 

Objections. — Flank  thin,  tucked  in,  or  cut  up  too  high;  loin 
narrow  or  weak. 

Ham. — Bread,  full,  deep;  of  medium  length;  coming  down 
well  over  the  hock. 

Objections. — Narrow;  short;  running  too  far  up  the  back; 
steop  at  the  rump. 

Limbs. — Medium  length;  short  rather  than  long;  set  well 
apart,  and  well  under;  muscles  full  above  knee  and  hock;  bone 
firm  and  not  ccarse;  pasterns  short  and  strong;  foct  short. 

Objections. — Long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked;  muscles  lisht;  pas- 
terns long,  slim  or  flat;  hoofs  long  or  sprawling. 

Ta! I.— Small,  tapering,  smccth,  well  set  on. 

Objections. — Coarse;    large;    too   prominent  at  the  roct. 

Coat. — Fine  and  thick. 

Objections. — Coarse;  hair  too  long;  wiry;  harsh. 

Color. — White.  (Blue  spots  in  skin  and  black  specks  shall 
not  argue  impurity  of  blood.) 

Action. — Easy;   prompt;   fine  and  graceful. 

Objections. — Dull,    sluggish,    clumsy. 

Symmetry. — Uniform  build,  and  all  points  in  animal  in  pro- 
portion. 

Objections. — Wanting  in  some  points,  and  too  much  develop- 
ed in  others. 

SERIOUS    OBJECTIONS. 

Form. — Sm&ll  growth;  upright  ears;  small,  cramped  chest; 
crease  back  of  the  shoulders,  so  as  to  be  readily  seen;  deformed 
and  badly  crooked  legs;  feet  broken  down  so  that  animal  walks 
on  pastern  joints  and  dew-claws. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Conditions. — Excessive  fat;  barren;  deformed,  unsound  or 
diseased;  ridgling  or  one-seeded. 

Score. — A  score  of  less  than  sixty  of  the  standard. 
Pedigree. — Lack  of  eligibility  to  record. 


176  JUDGING  SWINE 


DUROOJERSEY  SWINE. 

STANDARD  OF  CHARACTERISTICS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  DUROC- 

JERSEY  SWINE   BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION.      AMERICAN 

DUROC-JERSEY  RECORD,  VOL  IV,   1893. 

Color. — The  color  is  a  very  important  factor  in  establishing 
the  fancy  markings  of  any  of  the  improved  breeds  of  swine, 
and  it  seems  as  though  the  Doroc-Jersey  is  no  exception.  Our 
breeders,  (at  least  many  of  them)  seem  to  not  have  the  right 
idea  as  to  what  our  "Standard  of  Characteristics"  means  by 
the  term  "Cherry  Red." 

There  are  many  shades  of  red  and  we  shall  here  endeavor 
to  make  some  suggestions  which  will  enable  breeders  to  give 
the  exact  color  of  their  hogs  sent  for  registration. 

The  best  way  is  to  ,take  a  few  hairs  from  the  back  of  the 
animal  and  hold  them  in  a  bright  light,  and  then  you  can  tell 
very  accurately  the  exact  color.  If  the  hair  is  a  clear,  deep 
red,  and  not  shading  brown  or  black  at  the  end,  you  have  a 
cherry  red  color  and  should  be  recorded  as  "Cherry  Red." 
Should  the  hair  be  as  above  and  shading  brown  or  black,  it 
should  be  recorded  as  "Dark  Cherry."  Should  the  hair  be 
lighter  and  glossy  in  the  sun  light,  they  should  be  recorded  as 
"Bright  Red,"  or  "Bright  Cherry."  Should  the  hair  be  light 
and  have  a  dull  appearance,  they  should  be  recorded  as  "Medi- 
um." Should  the  hair  be  dark  or  shading  black,  they  should  be 
recorded  as  "Dark  Red." 

The  most  fashionable  color  and  the  one  our  breeders  should 
use  every  possible  means  to  establish  in  their  herd  is  a 
"Cherry  Red,"  and  as  speedily  as  possible,  discard  all  animals 
with  black  spots  or  flecks,  and  avoid  very  light  or  dark  shades 
in  their  selection  of  breeding  animals. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SWINE  177 

DUROOJERSEY  SWINE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS. — AMERICAN  DUROC-JERSEY  RECORD.  ^ 

Similar  to  the  description  prepared  by  the  National  Asso-     g 
ciation  of  Expert  Judges.  <j 

Head    and    Face    4 

Eyes    2 

Ears   2 

Neck    2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders    6 

Chest 12 

Back   and    Loin 15 

Sides    and    Ribs    8 

Belly   and    Flank    G 

Hams  and    Rumps    10 

Legs  and  Feet    10 

Tail    1 

Coat    ' 2 

Color    2 

Size 5 

Action  and  Style    4 

Condition    t    4 

Disposition    3 

Total 100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Ears  standing  erect;  small  cramped  chest,  and 
crease  back  of  shoulders  and  over  back  so  as  to  cause  a  depres- 
sion in  the  back  easily  noticed:  seriously  deformed  legs,  or 
badly  broken  down  feet. 

Size.— Very  small,  cr  not  two-thirds  large  enough  as  given  by 
the  standard. 

Score. — Less  than  fifty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  small  in  proportion  to  size  of  body; 
wide  between  eyes;  face  nicely  dished  (about  half  way  be- 
tween a  Poland-China  and  a  Berkshire)  and  tapering  well  down 
to  the  ncse;  surface  smooth  and  even. 

'Objections. — Large  and  coarse;  narrow  between  the  eyes; 
face  straight;  crooked  nose,  or  too  much  dished. 

Eyes. — Lively,  bright  and  prominent. 

Objections. — Dull,  weak  and  obscure. 

Ears. — Medium;  moderately  thin;  pointing  forward,  down- 
ward and  slightly  outward,  carrying  a  slight  curve,  attached  to 
head  very  neatly. 

Objections. — Very  large;  nearly  round;  too  thick;  swinging 
or  flabby;  not  of  same  size;  different,  position  and  not  under 
control  of  animal. 

Neck. — Short,  thick  and  very  deep  and  slightly  arching. 

Objections. — Long,  shallow  and  thin. 


178  JUDGING   SWINE 

Jowl. — Broad,  full  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  back  to  point 
of  shoulders  and  on  a  line  with  breast  bone. 

Objections. — Too  large,  loose  and  flabby  small  thin  and 
wedging. 

Shoulders. — Moderately  broad;  very  deep  and  full;  carrying 
thickness  well  down  and  not  extending  above  line  of  back. 

Objections. — Small;  thin;  shallow;  extending  above  line  of 
back.  Boars  under  one  year  old  heavily  shielded. 

Chest. — Large;  very  deep;  filled  full  behind  shoulders;  breast 
bone  extending  well  forward  so  as  to  be  readily  seen. 

Objections. — Flat;  shallow,  or  not  extending  well  down  be- 
tween fore  legs. 

Back  and  Loin. — Back  medium  in  breadth;  straight  or  slight- 
ly arching;  carrying  even  width  from  shoulder  to  ham;  surface 
even  and  smooth. 

Objections. — Narrow;  crease  behind  shoulders.';  siwayed  or 
humped  backed. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  very  deep;  medium  in  length;  level 
between  shoulders  and  hams  and  carrying  out  full  down  to 
line  of  belly.  Ribs  long,  strong  and  sprung  in  proportion  to 
width  of  shoulders  and  hams. 

Objections. — Flabby,  creased,  shallow  and  not  carrying  prop- 
er width  from  top  to  bottom. 

Belly  and  Flank. — Straight  and  full  and  carrying  well  out  to 
line  of  sides.  Flank  well  down  to  lower  line  of  sides. 

Objections. — Narrow;  tucked  up  or  drawn  in;  sagging  or 
flabby. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Broad,  full  and  well  let  down  to  the,  hock; 
buttock  full  and  coming  nearly  down  and  filling  full  between 
hocks.  Rump  should  have  a  round  slope,  from  loin  to  root  of 
tail;  same  width  as  back  and  well  filled  out  around  tail. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow;  short;  thin;  not  projecting  well 
down  to  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch.  Rump  narrow;  flat 
or  peaked  at  root  of  tail;  too  steep. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Medium  size  and  length;  straight;  nicely 
tapered;  wide  apart  and  well  set  under  the  body;  pasterns 
short  and  strong.  Feet  short,  firm  and  tough. 

Objections. — Legs  extremely  long,  or  very  short;  slim;  coarse; 
crooked;  legs  as  large  below  knee  and  hock  as  above;  set  too 
close  together;  hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line.  Feet, 
hoofs  long;  slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked. 

Tail. — Medium;  large  at  base  and  nicely  tapering  and  rather 
bushy  at  end. 

Objections. —  Extremely  heavy;  too  long  and  ropy. 

Coat. — Moderately  thick  and  fine;  straight,  smooth  and  cov- 
ering the  body  well. 

Objections. — Too  many  bristles;  hair  coarse,  harsh,  and 
rough;  wavy  or  curly;  swirls,  or  not  evenly  laid  over  the  body. 

Color. — Cherry  red  without  other  admixtures. 

.Objections. — Very  dark  red  or  shading  brown;  very  pale  or 
light  red;  black  spots  over  the  body;  black  flecks  on  belly  and 
legs  not  desired  but  admissible. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boars  two  years  old  and 
over  should  weigh  600  Ibs.;  sow  same  age  and  condition,  500 
Ibs.  Boar  eighteen  months,  475  Ibs.;  sow  400  Ibs.  Boar  twelve 
months,  350  Ibs.;  sow,  300  Ibs.  Boar  and  sow  pigs  six  months. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SWINE      179 

150  Ibs.     The  figures  are  for  animals  in  a  fair  show  condition. 

Objections. — Rough  and  coarse  and  lacking  in  feeding  quali- 
ties. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  vigorous  and  animated.  Style 
free  and  easy. 

Objections. — Dull  or  stupid;  awkward  and  wabbling.  In  boars 
testicles  not  easily  seen  nor  of  same  size  or  carriage;  too  large 
or  only  one  showing. 

Condition. — Healthy;  skin  free  from  scurf,  scales,  sores, 
and  mange;  flesh  evenly  laid  over  the  entire  body  and  free 
from  any  lumps. 

Objections. — Unhealthy;  scurfy;  scaly;  sores;  mange;  too 
fat  for  breading  purposes;  hair  harsh  and  standing  up;  poor 
feeders. 

Disposition. — Very  quiet  and  gentle;  easily  handled  or  driven. 

Objections. — Wild,  vicious  or  stubborn. 


VICTORIA  SWINE. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BV  VICTORIA  SWINE  BREEDERS 

ASSOCIATION.      AMERICAN  VICTORIA  SWINE  RECORD,  ^ 

VOL.  I,  1887.  -g 

The  description  that  follows  is  similar  to  that  adopted  by     g 
the  National  Association  of  Expert  Judges.  CJ 

Color — White,  with  occasional  dark  spots  in  the  skin ,. .  2 

Head — Small,  broad  and  face  medium  dished 3 

Ears — Fine,    pointing   forward    2 

Jowl — Medium  size  and  neat 1 

Neck— Short,  full  and  well  arched 3 

Shoulders — Broad  and   deep    7 

Girth    Around    Heart 6 

Back— Straight,  broad  and  level 12 

Sides — Deep  and  full   6 

Ribs — Well    sprung    7 

Loin — Broad  and  strong 12 

Flank— Well  let   down    2 

Ham— -Broad,  full  and  deep,  without  loose  fat 12 

Tail — Medium  fine  and  curled 2 

Legs— Fine  and  straight   3 

Feet — Small    

Hair — Fine  and  silky,  free  from  bristles 3 

Action — Easy  and   graceful    4 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other. .  10 

Total 100 

Detailed  Description  of  Victoria  swine  as  adopted  by  the  Vic- 
toria Swine  Breeders'  Association  at  their  annual  meeting,  No- 
vember, 1888,  as  an  aid  to  judges  at  fairs  in  place  of  the  score 
card. 

Color — White,  with  occasional  dark   spot  in  the  skin. 

Head  and  Face— Head  rather  small  and  neat.  Face  medium 
dished  and  smooth;  wide  between  eyes;  tapering  from  eyes  to 
nose. 


180  JUDGING  SWINE 

Eyes — Medium  size,  prominent,  bright;  clear  and  lively  in 
young,  and  quiet  expression  in  aged  animals. 

Neck. — Medium  wide,  deep,  short,  well  arched  and  full  at 
top. 

Jowl. — Medium  full,  nicely  rounded,  neat  and  free  from  loose, 
flabby  fat. 

Shoulders. — Broad,  deep  and  full,  not  higher  than  the  line  of 
back,  and  as  wide  on  top  as  back. 

Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep  and  roomy,  with  large  girth  back 
of  shoulders. 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying 
same  width  from  shoulders  to  ham;  level  and  full  at  loin;  some- 
times higher  at  hip  than  at  shoulder. 

Ribs  and  Sides. — Ribs  well  sprung  at  top;  strong  and  firm; 
sides  deep,  full,  smooth  and  firm;  free  from  creases. 

Belly  and  Flank — Wide;  straight  and  full;  as  low  or  slightly 
lower  at  flank  than  at  chest.  Flank  full  and  nearly  even  with 
sides. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Harns  long;  full  and  wide;  nicely  rounded; 
trim  and  free  from  loose  fat.  Buttocks  large  and  full;  reaching 
well  down  towards  hocks.  Rump,  slightly  sloped  from  end  of 
loin  to  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  short;  set  well  apart  and  firm;  wide 
above  knee  and  hock  tapering  below.  Feet  firm  and  standing 
well  up  on  toes. 

Tail. — Small;  fine  and  tapering;  nicely  curled. 

Coat. — Fine  and  silky;    evenly  covering  the  body. 

Size. — Boars  two  years  old  and  over  when  in  good  condition 
should  weigh  not  less  than  500  Ibs.;  sow  same  age  and  condi- 
tion, 450  Ibs.  Boars  twelve  months  old  not  less  than  300  Ibs.; 
sows  in  good  flesh  300  Ibs.  Pigs  5  to  6  months  old  140  to  160 
Ibs. 

Action. — Easy  and  graceful,  but  quiet. 

Condition. — Healthy;  skin  clean,  and  white  or  pink  in  color; 
free  from  scurf;  flesh  firm  and  evenly  laid  on. 

Disposition. — Quiet  and  gentle. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Color. — Other  than  white  or  creamy  white,  with  occasional 
dark  spots  in  skin. 

Form. — Crooked  jaws  or  deformed  face;  crooked  or  deformed 
legs;  large,  coarse,  drooping  ears. 

Condition. — Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  deformity  in  any 
part  of  the  body. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  for  record. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR  SWINE  181 

CHESHIRE  SWINE. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE.       THE  CHESHIRE  HERD  BOOK. 
VOL  I,  1889. 

Head. — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion  to 
length  of  body;  face  somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the 
eyes;  ears  small,  erect,  in  old  animals  often  .slightly  pointing 
forward;  neck,  short;  shoulders  broad  and  full;  hips  broad; 
body  long,  broad  and  deep;  hams,  broad,  nearly  straight  with 
back  and  running  well  down  towards  hock;  legs  small  and  slim, 
set  well  apart  and  supporting  the  body  on  the  toes;  tail,  small 
and  slim;  hair  fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity;  color 
white,  a  few  blue  spots  in  skin  not  to  disqualify,  but  objectiona- 
ble; when  grown  and  well  fattened  should  dress  from  400  to 
GOO  Ibs. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS. 

Cheshires   must   be   shown  in  fair   breeding   condition.  •£ 

Animals  too  fleshy  to  meet  this  requirement  must  be  docked  g 

ten  points.  U 
Head. — Short  to   medium  in   length,   short  in   proportion   to 

length  of  body   8 

Face.— Somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the  eyes S 

Jowl. — Medium   in  fullness    3 

Ears.— Small,  fine,  erect;   in  eld  animals  often  pointing  for- 
ward   5 

Neck.— Short   and   broad    ' 3 

Shoulders. — Broad,    full   and    deep 6 

Girth. — Size   of  body   around   heart 3 

Back. — Long,  broad  and  straight  nearly  to  root  cf  tail 10 

Side. — Deep  and  full,  nearly  straight  on  bottcm  line 7 

Flank. — Well  back  and  low  down,  making  flank  girth  nearly 

equal  to  heart   girth    3 

Hams. — Broad,  nearly  straight  with  back  and  running  well 

down    towards    hock    10 

Legs. — Small  and  slim,  set  well  apart  and  supporting  body 

on  toes    10 

Tail. — Small,  slim   and  tapering   3 

Hair. — Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quality 3 

Color. — White,  any  other  colored  hair  to  disqualify 2 

Skin. — Thin  and  pliable;   small  blue  spots  objectionable,  but 

allowable   3 

Symmetry. — Animal  well  proportioned,  handsome,  stylish 8 

Total   .  100 


182  JUDGING   SWINE 

YORKSHIRE  SWINE:     LARGE  WHITE. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  PUBLISHED  IN  THE  NATIONAL 
PIG  BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION  HERD  BOOK,   NOTTING- 
HAM, ENG.,  VOL.  XII,   1896. 

Color. — White,  free  from  black  hairs,  and  as  far  as  possible 
from  blue  spots  on  the  skin. 

Head. — Moderately  long,  face  slightly  dished,  snout  broad, 
not  too  much  turned  up,  jowl  not  too  heavy,  wide  between  ears. 

Ears. — Long,  thin,  slightly  inclined  forward,  and  fringe  with 
fine  hair. 

NCCK. — Long,   and   proportionately   full   to   the    shoulders. 

Chest. — Wide  and  deep. 

Shoulders. — Level  across  the  top,  not  too  wide,  free  from 
coarseness. 

Legs. — Straight  and  well  set,  level  with  the  outside  of  the 
body,  with  flat  bone. 

Pasterns. — Short  and   springy. 

Feet. — Strong,  even  and  wide. 

Back. — Long,  level  and  wide  from  neck  to  rump. 

Lcin. — Broad. 

Tail. — Set  high,  stout  and  long,  but  not  coarse,  with  tassels 
of  fine  hair. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung. 

Belly. — Full,  but  not  flabby,  with  straight  underline. 

Flank. — Thick  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters. — Long  and  wide. 

Hams. — Broad,  full  and  deep  to  hocks. 

Coat. — Long  and   moderately  fine. 

Action. — Firm   and  free. 

Skin. — Not  too  thick,  quite  free  from  wrinkles.  Large  bred 
pigs  do  not  fully  develop  their  points  until  some  months  old, 
the  pig  at  five  months  often  proving  at  a  year  or  fifteen  months 
a  much  better  animal  than  could  be  anticipated  at  the  earlier 
age  and  vice  versa;  but  size  and  quality  are  most  important. 

Objections. — Black  hairs,  black  spots,  a  curly  coat,  a  coarse 
mane,  short  snout,  in-bent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoul- 
ders. 

MIDDLE  WHITE  SWINE. 


STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  ADOPTED  BY  THE  NATIONAL  PIG 
BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Color. — White,  free  from  black  hairs  and  blue  spots  on  the 
skin. 

Head. — Moderately  short,  face  dished,  snout  broad  and  turned 
up,  jowl  full,  wide  between  the  ears. 

Ears. — Fairly  large,  carried  erect  and  fringed  with  fine  hair. 

Neck. — Medium  length,  proportionately  full  to  the  shoulders. 

Chest. — Wide  and  deep. 

Shoulders. — Level  across  the  top,  moderately  wide,  free  from 
coarseness. 

Leg. — Straight  and  well  set,  level  with  outside  of  the  body 
with  fine  bone. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE  183 

Pasterns. — Short  and   springy. 

Feet. — Strong,  even  and  wide. 

Back. — Long,  level  and  wide  from  rump. 

Loin. — Broad. 

Tail. — Set  high,  moderate  length,  but  not  coarse,  with  tassel 
of  fine  hair. 

Sides.— Deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung. 

Belly. — Full,  but  not  flabby  and  straight  underline. 

Flank. — Thick  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters — Long  and  wide. 

Hams. — Broad,  full  and  deep  to  hocks. 

Coat. — Long,  fine  and  silky. 

Action. — Firm   and  free. 

Skin. — Fine  and  quite  free  from  wrinkles. 

Objections. — Black  nairs,  black  or  blue  spots,  a  coarse  mane, 
in-bent  knees,  hollowness  of  shoulders,  wrinkled  skin. 

SMALL  WHITE  SWINE. 


STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  ADOPTED  BY  THE  NATIONAL  PIG 
BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Color. — Pure  white. 

Head. — Very  short  and  dished,  snout  broad  and  turned  up, 
jowl  very  full,  broad  between  the  ears. 

Ears. — Smiall,  short,  and  erect. 

Neck.— Short    and    thick. 

Chest. — Full  and  broad. 

Shoulders. — Full  and  wide. 

Legs. — Short,  set  well  outside  the  body,  fine  bone. 

Pasterns. — Short  and  springy. 

Feet — Small. 

Ba/ck. — Broad,  level  and  straight. 

Loin. — Wide. 

Tail. — High  set,  small  and  fine,  with  tassel  of  fine  hair. 

Girth. — As  deep  as  possible  consistent  with  length. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung. 

Belly. — Deep  and  near  ground. 

Flank. — Thick   and   well   let   down. 

Quarters. — Wide  and  full. 

Hams. — Deep,  wide,  full,  and  well  rounded. 

Coat. — Fine  and  silky. 

Action. — Free  and  firm. 

Skin. — Fine,  quite  free  from  wrinkles.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  animals,  small,  thick  and  compact  when  compared  witt 
other  breeds. 

Objections. — Black  hairs,  black  or  blue  spots,  coarse  hair,  in 
bent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulder,  wrinkled  skin. 


184 


JUDGING   SWINE 


SMALL  YORKSHIRE  SWINE. 


Head. 


Legs 


SCALE  OF  POINTS — AMERICAN   SMALL  YORKSHIRE   SWINE 
RECORD,  VOLUME  II,   1890. 

O 

Smaller  the  better 2 

Nose,  shorter  the  better 5 

Dish,  greater  the  better 3 

Width  between  ears,  greater,  the  better 3 

Ears,  small,  thin,  erect,  more  so  the  better 

(may  be  pricked  forward,  not  lopped) ...  2 

Top     line,     straighter   the     better,    from 

shoulder  to  tail 5 

Belly  line,  the  more  level  the  better 5 

Girth  in  excess  of  length,  more  the  better,  if 

not  more  than  ten  per  cent 5 

Depth,  greater  the  better 5 

Width,  greater  and  evener  the  better,  from 

shoulder  to  ham 5 

Loin,  broader  the  better 5 

Flank,  deeper  and  fuller  the  better 5 

Length,  longer  the  better 10 

Breadth,  broader  the  better 10 

Thickness,  greater  the  better 5 

Length,  longer  the  better 2 

Breadth,  broader  the  better 3 

Thickness o 

Shorter  the  better 3 

Straighter  the  better 2 


Trunk 35 


Hams 25 


Shoulders 5 


Smooth,  flexible,  fine;  more  so  the  better. .     5 
Must  not  be  too  thin,  nor  ridgy  and 

Skin 5          coarse,  nor  show  discolored  spots  from 

old  sores,  not  pale  and  ashy  but  healthy 
in  color  and  free  from  eruption. 

Hair . ..    |   Evener,  finer  and  thicker  the  better 5 


General  appear- 
ance       5 


Symmetry  and  evidence  of  vigorous  health .     5 
Total..,  ..loo 


DISCOUNTS   AND   DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Pedigree,  lack  of  registration  or  ineligibility  to  be  registered  dis- 
qualifies  100 

Sterility,  inability  to  produce  offspring  disqualifies , IOG 

Deformity,  any  structural  deformity  or  lack  disqualifies 100 

Disease,  any  evidence  of,  or  tendency  to  disease  disqualifies 100 

Disease,  scars  of  sores,  discolored  spots,  eruptions,  eczema,  etc.  5  to  25 

Colored  hair,  disqualifies 100 

Colored  spots,  dark  spots  in  skin 5  to  25 

Size,  inordinate  size,  with  coarseness  of  bone  or  form 10  to  50 

Size,  diminutive  size 5  to  25 

Disposition,  savage  or  fierce  nature 5  to  10 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SWINE     185 


SUFFOLK  SWINE.  ^ 

SCALE  OP  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  SUFFOLK 

ASSOCIATION.  (J 

Color.— White , j, .  2 

Head.— Small,  broad  and  face  dished 3 

Ears. — Fine,   erect,  slightly  drooping  with  age 2 

Jowl. — Full  and  neat   1 

Neck.— Short,  full  and  slightly  arched 3 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  deep 7 

Girth    Around    Heart    6 

Back. — Straight,  broad,  level    12 

Sides. — Deep  and  full  6 

Ribs. — Well    sprung    7 

Loin. — Broad  and  strong    12 

Flank. — Well  let  down 2 

Ham.— Broad,   full,    deep    12 

Tail. — Medium,  fine  and   curled 2 

Legs. — Fine,  straight  and  tapering 3 

Feet. — Small  3 

Hair. — Fine  and  silky    free  from  bristles 3 

Action. — Easy   and   graceful    4 

Symmetry. — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other. . .  10 

Total    .  ..100 


186  JUDGING   SWINE 


TAMWORTH  SWINE. 

STANDARD  OP  EXCELLENCE  ADOPTED  BY  THE  NATIONAL  PIG 
BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Color. — liolden-red  hair  on  a  flesh  colored  skin,  free  from 
black. 

Head.— Fairly  long,  snout  moderately  long,  and  quite  straight, 
face  slightly  dished,  wide  between  ears. 

Ears. — Rather  large,  with  fine  fringe,  carried  rigid,  but  in- 
clined slightly  forward. 

Neck. — Fairly  long  and  muscular,  especially  in  boar. 

Chest. — Wide  and  deep. 

Shoulders. — Fine  standing,  and  well  set. 

Legs. — Strong  and  shapely  with  plenty  of  bone  and  set  well 
outside  of  body. 

Pasterns. — Strong  and  sloping. 

Feet. — Strong  and  fair  size. 

Back. — Long  and   straight. 

Loin. — Strong  and  broad. 

Tail. — Set  on  high  and  well  tasseled. 

Girth. — Deep  and  full  around  heart. 

Sides. — Long  and   deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung,  and  extending  well  up  to  flank. 

Belly. — Deep,  with  straight  underline. 

Flank. — Full  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters. — Long,   wide,    and    straight   from   hip   to  tail. 

Hams. — Broad  and  full,  and  well  let  down  to  hock. 

Coat. — Abundant,  long,  straight,  and  fine. 


TAMWORTH  SWINE. 


The  following  is  the  Tamworth  Scale  of  Points  Adopted  by 
the  English  Breeders: 

Formation  and  setting  on  of  fore  legs 10 

Formation   and  setting  on  of  hind   legs 10 

Length   and   general  conformation 10 

Head,  ears,  jowl  and   snout 10 

Breadth  of  neck    5 

Breadth  and  depth  of  shoulders 10 

Width  of  loin,  depth  of  sides,  springing  of  ribs 15 

Depth   and   breadth   of  hams 10 

Straightness  of  back  5 

Hair  and   quality   of   skin 5 

Color    5 

Fineness   of  bone    5 

Action. — Firm  and  free. 

Objections. — Black  hairs,  very  light  or  ginger  hair,  curly 
coat,  coarse  mane,  black  spots  on  skin,  slouch  or  drooping 
ears,  short  or  turned  up  snout,  heavy  shoulders,  wrinkled 
skin,  inbent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulders. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE  187 


THIN  RIND  HOGS. 

^ 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  ADOPTED  BY  THE  THIN  RIND  RECORD       g 
ASSOCIATION.  CJ 

Head. — Medium,  well  proportioned  to  length  of  body,  and 
grade  as  follows: 

Face. — Straight   and   rather  narrow   between   eyes 3 

Eyes. — Full  and  bright    2 

Ears. — Medium  length,  thin  and  slightly  inclining  forward..     3 

Jowl. — Light  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point 5 

Neck. — Short  and  well  set  to  shoulders 3 

Shoulders. — Wide,  full  and   deep,  smoothly  joined  to  back..     6 
Back. — Medium  in  length,  broad  with  nearly  uniform  width 
from  shoulders  to  loins,  slightly  arched  from  neck  to  top 

of  tail   10 

Sides. — Deep  and   well  rounded,  nearly   straight  on   bottom 

line 8 

Ribs. — Nicely  sprung  in  line  with  shoulders  and  hams 3 

Girth. — Very  full,  denoting  great  vigor  and  strong  consti- 
tution  8 

Flank. — Running  low  nearly  in  line  with  belly 2 

Hams. — Full  and  rounding  up  to  rump  and  of  great  breadth. .   12 
Legs. — Small,   set  well   apart,  very  erect  on   feet,   denoting 

great    carrying    capacity    10 

Tail.- — Medium   length,   neat   and   tapering 2 

Hair. — Fine  and  of  medium  thickness 3 

Color.— Black,  with  exception  of  white  belt  encircling  body 
including  fore  legs,  or  solid  black,  white  running  high 

upon  hind  legs  objectionable   but  allowable 5 

Form  and  General  Appearance. — Smooth  and  symmetrical, 
devoid  of  such  grossness  as  excess  of  bone,  jowl  and 
flabby  belly;  spirited,  attractive,  easy  movement,  indi- 
cating constitutional  vigor  and  good  breeding 15 

Total   .  ..100 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


This  book  has  been  developed  to  its  present  form  under  influ- 
ences that  have  been  very  favorable  to  it  and  the  author  feels  that 
these  should  be  fittingly  acknowledged.  From  its  inception,  some 
ten  years  ago,  these  influences  have  been  so  encouraging  that  it 
becomes  necessary  to  give  tangible  evidence  of  them,  and  con- 
sequently the  work  had  to  be  published  without  any  thought  of 
filing  the  traditional  "  long-felt  want"  which  is  so  frequently  the 
source  of  authorship.  Previous  to  attending  the  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College  the  writer  had  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  any  phase 
of  live  stock  work  but  a  deep  love  and  active  interest  in  animal  life, 
centered  chiefly  on  horses,  made  the  instruction  from  such  teachers 
as  Prof.  Win.  Brown,  Dr.  F.  C.  Grenside  and  Prof.  J.  W.  Rob- 
ertson, a  genuine  pleasure.  After  graduation,  three  years  of  edi- 
torial management  of  the  Canadian  Live  Stock  Journal  offered 
unusual  opportunities  for  analyzing  the  ideals  of  the  best  Canadian 
breeders,  to  whom  unlimited  appreciation  is  hereby  tendered  for  a 
foundation  which  could  hardly  have  been  laid  without  more  than 
usual  co-operation  from  them.  With  the  acceptance  of  the  Chair 
of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  a  wider  field 
was  entered  upon  for  deeper  study  and  investigation.  Stock  judging 
was  made  a  leading  feature  of  the  course,  and  with  the  develop- 
ment of  ideas  a  new  system  of  instruction  was  evolved.  The  writer 
is  vastly  indebted  to  Mr.  R.  B.  Ogilvie,  formerly  proprietor  of  Blair- 
gowrie  Stock  Farm,  for  not  only  directly  assisting  the  development 
of  this  department  at  the  University,  but  also  for  the  results  from 
frequent  visits  and  conferences  at  Blairgowrie,  through  which  a 
much  stronger  grasp  of  the  essentials  of  horse  judging  was  obtained. 
For  many  valuable  observations  on  the  qualities  of  draft  horses  the 
writer  finds  himself  also  greatly  in  the  debt  of  Mr.  Alexander 
Galbraith.  The  influence  of  Hon.  W.  A.  Jones,  now  Commis- 
sioner of  Indian  Affairs,  was  clearly  felt  on  the  development 


192  ACKNOWLEDGMENT:; 

of  this  department  of  the  University,  for  through  him  as  chair- 
man of  the  Farm  Committee  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  the 
equipment  for  this  work  was  materially  uplifted  with  corresponding 
encouragement.  Mr.  George  McKerrow  liberally  assisted  the  writer 
in  his  work  and  much  advancement  is  due  to  him  and  others, 
including  Messrs.  George  Harding  and  Son,  the  late  Mr.  M.  W.  Dun- 
ham, Ex-Governor  Hoard,  H.  C.  Taylor,  John  Gosling  and  M.  J. 
Hoven,  all  of  whom  in  more  than  one  way  gave  material  impetus 
to  the  movement. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  the  writer  came  under  the  inspiring 
influence  of  the  late  Mr.  William  Watson.  It  was  a  source  of  intense 
pleasure  to  see  this  experienced  fitter  and  judge  subject  any  of  his 
loving  friends,  chiefly  cattle  and  sheep,  to  his  considerate  inspec- 
tion. Equally  fair  minded,  another  friend,  William  Lysaght,  had 
this  rare  faculty  of  candid  criticism  even  of  his  own,  and  to  both 
of  these  men  the  writer  owes  more  than  he  is  able  to  acknowledge. 
After  coming  to  Iowa,  enlarged  opportunities  were  entered  upon 
for  the  pursuit  of  these  studies.  Prof.  C.  F.  Curtiss  and  Hon. 
James  Wilson ,  present  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  had  prepared  the  way 
with  an  equipment  in  live  stock  and  other  facilities  of  exceptional 
merit  for  the  teaching  of  this  subject.  Continued  association  with 
the  former  has  vastly  deepened  and  widened  the  writer's  interest 
and  knowledge  of  this  subject ;  for  such  must  be  the  outcome  of 
contact  with  a  broad  and  fair  minded  judge  of  wide  experience  in 
American  live  stock  show  rings.  One  of  the  most  effective  sources 
of  encouragement  to  the  development  of  this  line  of  teaching  has 
been  the  support  given  the  movement  by  the  commission  firm  of 
Messrs.  Clay,  Robinson  &  Company,  of  the  Union  Stock  yards, 
Chicago.  By  liberally  donating  prizes  for  the  study  of  this  subject 
in  our  colleges,  this  firm  brought  the  attention  of  the  practical  man 
to  it,  as  the  latter  realized  that  when  a  large  firm  stopped  in  its 
work  to  do  this  there  must  be  something  of  genuine  merit  in  the 
movement.  With  such  interest  from  outside  sources  and  such  direct 
associations  is  it  any  wonder  that  the  subject  should  grow  until  it 
became  a  necessity  to  publish  a  book  about  it  ?  . 

Other  influences  have  been  drawn  on  in  studying  this  subject 
further.  In  earlier  days  the  writer  happened  on  one  of  the  first 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS  193 

numbers  of  the  Breeders  Gazette,  containing  an  illustrated  edito- 
rial on  the  points  of  horses.  This  emphasized  the  importance  of 
the  subject  and  at  once  started  the  note  taking  and  the  collection 
of  photographs  which  seem  essential  features  for  a  work  like  this. 
Since  then  the  same  source  has  been  frequently  drawn  upon.  The 
writer  has  also  found  it  very  desirable  to  keep  in  touch  with  the 
London  Live  Stock  Journal,  as  weli  as  many  other  publications 
along  this  line  included  in  the  American  press.  Among  contempo- 
rary works,  Capt.  Hayes'  "Points  of  the  Horse,"  Goubaux  and 
Barrier's  "  Exterior  of  the  Horse,"  Underbill's  "  Driving  for 
Pleasure"  and  many  others  have  been  consulted.  To  continue 
acknowledging  all  the  sources  or  assistance  to  the  writer,  would 
require  another  volume  bat  let  it  suffice  to  say — there  are  hundreds 
of  American,  Canadian  and  British  breeders  to  whom  he  vividly 
recognizes  his  debt  but  feels  utterly  unable  to  adequately  acknowl- 
edge it, 


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